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United Kingdom: See also: Science education in England : In English and Welsh schools, science is a compulsory subject in the National Curriculum. All pupils from 5 to 16 years of age must study science. It is generally taught as a single subject science until sixth form, then splits into subject-specific A levels (physics, chemistry and biology). However, the government has since expressed its desire that those pupils who achieve well at the age of 14 should be offered the opportunity to study the three separate sciences from September 2008.In Scotland the subjects split into chemistry, physics and biology at the age of 13–15 for National 4/5s in these subjects, and there is also a combined science standard grade qualification which students can sit, provided their school offers it. In September 2006 a new science program of study known as 21st Century Science was introduced as a GCSE option in UK schools, designed to "give all 14 to 16-year-old's a worthwhile and inspiring experience of science".In November 2013, Ofsted's survey of science in schools revealed that practical science teaching was not considered important enough. At the majority of English schools, students have the opportunity to study a separate science program as part of their GCSEs, which results in them taking 6 papers at the end of Year 11; this usually fills one of their option 'blocks' and requires more science lessons than those who choose not to partake in separate science or are not invited. Other students who choose not to follow the compulsory additional science course, which results in them taking 4 papers resulting in 2 GCSEs, opposed to the 3 GCSEs given by taking separate science.
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United States: In many U.S. states, K-12 educators must adhere to rigid standards or frameworks of what content is to be taught to which age groups. This often leads teachers to rush to "cover" the material, without truly "teaching" it. In addition, the process of science, including such elements as the scientific method and critical thinking, is often overlooked. This emphasis can produce students who pass standardized tests without having developed complex problem solving skills.Although at the college level American science education tends to be less regulated, it is actually more rigorous, with teachers and professors fitting more content into the same time period. In 1996, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences of the U.S. National Academies produced the National Science Education Standards, which is available online for free in multiple forms. Its focus on inquiry-based science, based on the theory of constructivism rather than on direct instruction of facts and methods, remains controversial.Some research suggests that it is more effective as a model for teaching science. The Standards call for more than 'science as process,' in which students learn such skills as observing, inferring, and experimenting. Inquiry is central to science learning. When engaging in inquiry, students describe objects and events, ask questions, construct explanations, test those explanations against current scientific knowledge, and communicate their ideas to others. They identify their assumptions, use critical and logical thinking, and consider alternative explanations. In this way, students actively develop their understanding of science by combining scientific knowledge with reasoning and thinking skills.
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Concern about science education and science standards has often been driven by worries that American students, and even teachers,lag behind their peers in international rankings.One notable example was the wave of education reforms implemented after the Soviet Union launched its Sputnik satellite in 1957.The first and most prominent of these reforms was led by the Physical Science Study Committee at MIT. In recent years, business leaders such as Microsoft Chairman Bill Gates have called for more emphasis on science education, saying the United States risks losing its economic edge.To this end, Tapping America's Potential is an organization aimed at getting more students to graduate with science, technology, engineering and mathematics degrees.Public opinion surveys, however, indicate most U.S. parents are complacent about science education and that their level of concern has actually declined in recent years. Furthermore, in the recent National Curriculum Survey conducted by ACT, researchers uncovered a possible disconnect among science educators. "Both middle school/junior high school teachers and post secondary science instructors rate(d) process/inquiry skills as more important than advanced science content topics; high school teachers rate them in exactly the opposite order." Perhaps more communication among educators at the different grade levels in necessary to ensure common goals for student. 2012 science education framework : According to a report from the National Academy of Sciences, the fields of science, technology, and education hold a paramount place in the modern world, but there are not enough workers in the United States entering the science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) professions. In 2012 the National Academy of Sciences Committee on a Conceptual Framework for New K-12 Science Education Standards developed a guiding framework to standardize K-12 science education with the goal of organizing science education systematically across the K-12 years.
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Titled A Framework for K-12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas, the publication promotes standardizing K-12 science education in the United States. It emphasizes science educators to focus on a "limited number of disciplinary core ideas and crosscutting concepts, be designed so that students continually build on and revise their knowledge and abilities over multiple years, and support the integration of such knowledge and abilities with the practices needed to engage in scientific inquiry and engineering design." The report says that in the 21st century Americans need science education in order to engage in and "systematically investigate issues related to their personal and community priorities," as well as to reason scientifically and know how to apply science knowledge. The committee that designed this new framework sees this imperative as a matter of educational equity to the diverse set of schoolchildren. Getting more diverse students into STEM education is a matter of social justice as seen by the committee. 2013 Next Generation Science Standards: In 2013 a new standards for science education were released that update the national standards released in 1996. Developed by 26 state governments and national organizations of scientists and science teachers, the guidelines, called the Next Generation Science Standards, are intended to "combat widespread scientific ignorance, to standardize teaching among states, and to raise the number of high school graduates who choose scientific and technical majors in college. Included are guidelines for teaching students about topics such as climate change and evolution. An emphasis is teaching the scientific process so that students have a better understanding of the methods of science and can critically evaluate scientific evidence. Organizations that contributed to developing the standards include the National Science Teachers Association, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the National Research Council, and Achieve, a nonprofit organization that was also involved in developing math and English standards.
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Informal science education : Informal science education is the science teaching and learning that occurs outside of the formal school curriculum in places such as museums, the media, and community-based programs. The National Science Teachers Association has created a position statement-on Informal Science Education to define and encourage science learning in many contexts and throughout the lifespan. Research in informal science education is funded in the United States by the National Science Foundation. The Center for Advancement of Informal Science Education (CAISE)provides resources for the informal science education community. Examples of informal science education include science centers, science museums, and new digital learning environments (e.g. Global Challenge Award), many of which are members of the Association of Science and Technology Centers (ASTC).The Exploratorium in San Francisco and The Franklin Institute in Philadelphia are the oldest of this type of museum in the United States. Media include TV programs such as NOVA, Newton's Apple, "Bill Nye the Science Guy","Beakman's World", The Magic School Bus, and Dragonfly TV. Early examples of science education on American television included programs by Daniel Q. Posin, such as "Dr. Posin's Universe", "The Universe Around Us", "On the Shoulders of Giants", and "Out of This World". Examples of community-based programs are 4-H Youth Development programs, Hands On Science Outreach, NASA and After school Programs and Girls at the Center. Home education is encouraged through educational products such as the former (1940-1989) Things of Science subscription service.In 2010, the National Academies released Surrounded by Science: Learning Science in Informal Environments,based on the National Research Council study, Learning Science in Informal Environments: People, Places, and Pursuits.Surrounded by Science is a resource book that shows how current research on learning science across informal science settings can guide the thinking, the work, and the discussions among informal science practitioners. This book makes valuable research accessible to those working in informal science: educators, museum professionals, university faculty, youth leaders, media specialists, publishers, broadcast journalists, and many others.
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5-technical communication
Technical communication is a means to convey scientific,engineering, or other technical information.Individuals in a variety of contexts and with varied professional credentials engage in technical communication. Some individuals are designated as technical communicators or technical writers. These individuals use a set of methods to research, document, and present technical processes or products. Technical communicators may put the information they capture into paper documents, web pages, computer-based training, digitally stored text, audio, video, and other media. The Society for Technical Communication defines the field as any form of communication that focuses on technical or specialized topics, communicates specifically by using technology or provides instructions on how to do something.More succinctly, the Institute of Scientific and Technical Communicators defines technical communication as factual communication, usually about products and services.The European Association for Technical Communication briefly defines technical communication as "the process of defining, creating and delivering information products for the safe, efficient and effective use of products (technical systems, software, services)". Whatever the definition of technical communication, the overarching goal of the practice is to create easily accessible information for a specific audience. Technical communication is a task performed by specialized employees or consultants. For example, a professional writer may work with a company to produce a user manual. Some companies give considerable technical communication responsibility to other technical professionals—such as programmers, engineers, and scientists. Often, a professional technical writer edits such work to bring it up to modern technical communication standards.
To begin the documentation process, technical communicators identify the audience and their information needs. The technical communicator researches and structures the content into a framework that can guide detailed development. As the body of information comes together, the technical communicator ensures that the intended audience can understand the content and retrieve the information they need. This process, known as the writing process, has been a central focus of writing theory since the 1970s, and some contemporary textbook authors apply it to technical communication. Technical communication is important to most professions, as a way to contain and organize information and maintain accuracy.
The technical writing process is based on Cicero's 5 canons of rhetoric, and can be divided into six steps:
1. Determine purpose and audience
2. Collect information (Invention)
3. Organize and outline information (Arrangement)
4. Write the first draft (Style)
5. Revise and edit (Memory)
6. Publish output (Delivery)
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Determining purpose and audience : All technical communication serves a particular purpose—typically to communicate ideas and concepts to an audience, or instruct an audience in a particular task. Technical communication professionals use various techniques to understand the audience and, when possible, test content on the target audience. For example, if bank workers don't properly post deposits, a technical communicator would review existing instructional material (or lack thereof), interview bank workers to identify conceptual errors, interview subject matter experts to learn the correct procedures, author new material that instructs workers in the correct procedures, and test the new material on the bank workers.
Similarly, a sales manager who wonders which of two sites is better for a new store might ask a marketing professional to study the sites and write a report with recommendations. The marketing professional hands the report off to a technical communicator (in this case, a technical editor or technical writer), who edits, formats, and sometimes elaborates the document in order to make the marketing professional's expert assessment usable to the sales manager. The process is not one of knowledge transfer, but the accommodation of knowledge across fields of expertise and contexts of use. This is the basic definition of technical communication.
Audience type affects many aspects of communication, from word selection and graphics use to style and organization. Most often, to address a particular audience, a technical communicator must consider what qualities make a text useful (capable of supporting a meaningful task) and usable (capable of being used in service of that task). A non-technical audience might misunderstand or not even read a document that is heavy with jargon—while a technical audience might crave detail critical to their work such as vector notation. Busy audiences often don't have time to read entire documents, so content must be organized for ease of searching—for example by frequent headings, white space, and other cues that guide attention. Other requirements vary according to particular audience's needs. Technical communicators may need to translate, globalize, or localize their documents to meet the needs of audiences in different linguistic and cultural markets. Globalization involves producing technical content that meets the needs of "as many audiences as possible," ideally an international audience.Localization adapts existing technical content to fit the "cultural, rhetorical, educational, ethical, and legal" expectations of users in a specific local context. Technical communication in the government is particular and detailed. Depending on the segment of government (and country), the government component must follow distinct specifications. Information changes continuously and technical communications (technical manuals, interactive electronic technical manuals, technical bulletins, etc.) must be updated.
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Collecting information : Technical communicators must collect all information that each document requires. They may collect information through primary (first-hand) research—or secondary research, using information from existing work by other authors. Technical communicators must acknowledge all sources they use to produce their work. To this end, technical communicators typically distinguish quotations, paraphrases, and summaries when taking notes.
Organizing and outlining information: Before writing the initial draft, the technical communicator organizes ideas in a way that makes the document flow well. Once each idea is organized, the writer organizes the document as a whole—accomplishing this task in various ways:
* chronological: used for documents that involve a linear process, such as a step-by-step guide that describes how to accomplish something;
* parts of an object: Used for documents that describe the parts of an object, such as a graphic showing the parts of a computer (keyboard, monitor, mouse, etc.);
* simple to complex (or vice versa): starts with easy ideas and gradually goes into complex ideas;
* specific to general: starts with many ideas, then organizes the ideas into sub-categories;
* general to specific: starts with a few categories of ideas, then goes deeper.
After organizing the whole document, the writer typically creates a final outline that shows the document structure. Outlines make the writing process easier and save the author time. Writing the first draft: After the outline is complete, the writer begins the first draft, following the outline's structure. Setting aside blocks of an hour or more, in a place free of distractions, helps the writer maintain a flow. Most writers prefer to wait until the draft is complete before any revising so they don't break their flow. Typically, the writer should start with the easiest section, and write the summary only after the body is drafted. The ABC (abstract, body, and conclusion) format can be used when writing a first draft of some document types. The abstract describes the subject, so that the reader knows what the document covers. The body is the majority of the document and covers topics in depth. Lastly, the conclusion section restates the document's main topics. The ABC format can also apply to individual paragraphs—beginning with a topic sentence that states the paragraph's topic, followed by the topic, and finally, a concluding sentence.
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Revising and editing : Once the initial draft is laid out, editing and revising can be done to fine-tune the draft into a final copy. Usability testing can be helpful to evaluate how well the writing and/or design meets the needs of end users, and to suggest improvements . Four tasks transform the early draft into its final form, suggested by Pfeiffer and Boogard. Adjusting and reorganizing content: In this step, the writer revises the draft to elaborate on topics that need more attention, shorten other sections—and relocate certain paragraphs, sentences, or entire topics. Editing for style: Good style makes writing more interesting, appealing, and readable. In general, the personal writing style of the writer is not evident in technical writing. Modern technical writing style relies on attributes that contribute to clarity: headings, lists, graphics; generous white space, short sentences, present tense, simple nouns, active voice( though some scientific applications still use the passive voice), second and third person as required. Technical writing as a discipline usually requires that a technical writer use a style guide. These guides may relate to a specific project, product, company, or brand. They ensure that technical writing reflects formatting, punctuation, and general stylistic standards that the audience expects. In the United States, many consider the Chicago Manual of Style the bible for general technical communication. Other style guides have their adherents, particularly for specific industries—such as the Microsoft Style Guide in some information technology settings. Editing for grammar and punctuation: At this point, the writer performs a mechanical edit, checking the document for grammar, punctuation, common word confusions, passive voice, overly long sentences, etc.
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6- compare and contrast
What: Compare and Contrast is a t are being compared Why: Ofen students have difficulty organizing information into a meaningful way in order to understand it. This strategy helps students to organire information so that they can summary the information or explain it in a cause-and-effect essay. How: The Cause and Effect strategy systematically analyzes and evaluates the relationship of two or more subjects. The comparison is a process that shows how subjects are alike (similarities), while the contrast is the process of showing how subjects are unlike (differences). An effect comparison attempts to identify one of four general purposes:
• Two suhjects thought to be different are actually similar.
• Two subjects thought to be similar are really quite different.
• Two subjects Although compared are not equal , this one is better than the other .
• A complex subject is defined by comparing its to similar subjects and contrasting with opposite an one.
When doing a Compare und Contrast strategy, focus the activity around four general questions:
• "What subjects are being compared The answer to this question identifies the two or more subjects that will be compared.
• "How are they alike?" The anvwer lists all ways that these subjects are the same.
• "How are they different" The answer lists all ways that these subjects are different.
. "What is the conclusion The unswer is a summary satement or a goneraliration that can be made afer completing the comparing and contrasting. When doing a compare and contrast activity, several differen graphic organizers can be utilined according to how the information needs to be organized. Among the different forms of graphic organizers are the
• Venn agram
• T-Chart
• Similarities and Differences Chart
• Compure and Contrast Table
• Compare and Contrast Chart
• CompereContrat Matris
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Other variations of graphic organizers that utilize compare and contrast are
• Advantages and Disadvantages Chart
• Fact and Opinion Chart
Compare and Contrast Essay is often used to explain the similarities and differences of two or more subjects. The writer can organize the essay by writing about one subject first and then comparing it with the second subject (a whole to whole comparison). Another approach to organizing the essay is to first compare the subjects, then contrast them. A third method is to only compare or only contrast the subjects. A very effective approach is to organize the essay by comparing each subject by category (a point-by-point comparison). The Divided Pattern of Comparison is the most common approach for developing a comparison where the first half of the essay discusses the first subject and the latter half is a discussion of the second subject. This structure seems more focused on the subjects being compared and contrasted than on the comparison and contrast itself. The similarities and differences do not begin to emerge until the writer gets to the second subject. The examples or categories for the first subject should be linked to those for the second subject to unify the contrast between the two subjects. A way to achieve this linkage is to follow a similar pattern in both sections of the essay. The writer can also arrange the basic points for each subject in the same sequence and devoting about the same amount of space to cach point. The divided pattern of comparison is a common approach because it is an easier pattern to organize and control, particularly in short essays. The Alternating Pattem of Comparison is an approach that presents the details of both subjects in matched pairs, often in the same paragraph, sometimes in the same sentence. The alternating pattern of comparison requires the writer to organize the material more precisely and according to certain categories. This form of the compare and contrast essay focuses only on those points that are explicitly comparable or contrasting. This pattern is easier and more interesting for the reader because the point- by-point development reinforces the comparison with every pair of matehed details and because the balanced sentence structure emphasizes the comparison or contrast. When: Use this strategy whenever two or more subjects need to be compared and contrasted. Complete a compare and contrast graphic organizer to help the students organize the information and use a compare and contrast essay to improve their critical thinking skills.
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7- society for risk analysis
The Society for Risk Analysis (SRA) is a learned society providing an open forum for anyone interested in risk analysis. It seeks to: provide an avenue for individuals (from different disciplines from various corners of the globe) to discuss ideas and information as well as methodologies for analyzing risk and solving related issues and problems; promote understanding and encourage collaboration among professionals and organisations relevant to analyzing risk and providing solutions; disseminate and promote risk (methods) knowledge and their applications in research and education; and serve its members in developing and furthering their careers in risk analysis. And early 1979, Robert B. Cumming recognized the growing need for risk researchers and practitioners to publish their work in a dedicated scientific journal. This led to the formation of an organization to support such a journal, with the certificate of incorporation for the SRA made official on August 28, 1980. The first issue of Risk Analysis appeared in March 1981. SRA broadly defines risk analysis to include risk assessment, risk characterization, risk communication, risk management, and policy relating to risk. The society's interests include: risk perception, risks to human health and the environment, both built and natural; threats from physical, chemical, and biological agents and from a variety of human activities as well as natural events; and risks of concern to individuals, to public and private sector organizations, and to society at various geographic scales. SRA publishes a glossary of definitions of key terms related to risk and fundamental principles for high quality risk analysis. Since the first awards were given in 1984, SRA continues to value outstanding contributions to the society and to the field of risk analysis. The following are its most-sought annual awards: Distinguished Achievement Award. This award is given to any individual for his or her extraordinary achievement in science or public policy relevant to the field of risk analysis. Richard J Burk Outstanding Service Award. A recognition to the society's member for extraordinary service to SRA. Outstanding Practitioner Award. Award alternately given to a member in public and private practice for an outstanding practice in the field of risk analysis. Chauncey Starr Distinguished Young Risk Analyst Award. For an outstanding risk-analysis-related achievement in science or public policy by SRA's member (of 40 years of age or below) and exceptional promise for continued contributions to risk analysis. Distinguished Educator Award. Awarded to an outstanding teacher, author or mentor for substantial training of new experts in risk analysis.
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8-conclusion
Social science examines the relationships between individuals and societies, as well as the development and operation of societies, rather than studying the physical world. These academic disciplines rely more heavily on interpretation and qualitative research methodologies. Thus, social sciences help people understand how to interact with the social world—how to influence policy, develop networks, increase government accountability, and promote democracy. These challenges, for many people around the world, are immediate, and their resolution can make a vast difference in people's lives. All social science should respect the privacy, autonomy, diversity, values, and dignity of individuals, groups and communities. All social science should be conducted with integrity throughout, employing the most appropriate methods for the research purpose. Social science provides empirical data about what the problems are and encourages people to propose possible solutions, and you try them, and some of them work. The most popular social science majors include psychology, political science, economics, and sociology. Some people's list of social sciences include closely related fields like social work, public administration, and education, which also rank among the most common undergraduate majors. It can helped people understand the consequences and application of the new technologies of the age, such as steam power. The growth of railways and factories not only transformed the economy and the world of work, but also changed forever the way people organised their family lives and leisure.
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D. religion and art
1- religious art
Religious art or sacred art is artistic imagery using religious inspiration and motifs and is often intended to uplift the mind to the spiritual. Sacred art involves the ritual and cultic practices and practical and operative aspects of the path of the spiritual realization within the artist's religious tradition. 9th century Byzantine mosaic of the Hagia Sophia showing the image of the Virgin and Child, one of the first post-iconoclastic mosaics. It is set against the original golden background of the 6th century Buddhist art : Buddhist art originated on the Indian subcontinent following the historical life of Siddhartha Gautama, 6th to 5th century BC, and thereafter evolved by contact with other cultures as it spread throughout Asia and the world.
Buddhist art followed believers as the dharma spread, adapted, and evolved in each new host country. It developed to the north through Central Asia and into Eastern Asia to form the Northern branch of Buddhist art. Buddhist art followed to the east as far as Southeast Asia to form the Southern branch of Buddhist art. Tibetan Buddhist art : Most Tibetan Buddhist artforms are related to the practice of Vajrayana or Buddhist tantra. Tibetan art includes thangkas and mandalas, often including depictions of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. Creation of Buddhist art is usually done as a meditation as well as creating an object as aid to meditation. An example of this is the creation of a sand mandala by monks; before and after the construction prayers are recited, and the form of the mandala represents the pure surroundings (palace) of a Buddha on which is meditated to train the mind. The work is rarely, if ever, signed by the artist. Other Tibetan Buddhist art includes metal ritual objects, such as the vajra and the phurba. Indian Buddhist art : Two places suggest more vividly than any others the vitality of Buddhist cave painting from about the 5th century AD. One is Ajanta, a site in India long forgotten until discovered in 1817. The other is Dunhuang, one of the great oasis staging posts on the Silk Road...The paintings range from calm devotional images of the Buddha to lively and crowded scenes, often featuring the seductively full-breasted and narrow-waisted women more familiar in Indian sculpture than in painting.
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Christian art : Catholic art, and Byzantine art . Religious image § Christianity, Madonna (art), Icon, and Images of Jesus., Christian sacred art is produced in an attempt to illustrate, supplement and portray in tangible form the principles of Christianity, though other definitions are possible. It is to make imagery of the different beliefs in the world and what it looks like. Most Christian groups use or have used art to some extent, although some have had strong objections to some forms of religious image, and there have been major periods of iconoclasm within Christianity.Most Christian art is allusive, or built around themes familiar to the intended observer. Images of Jesus and narrative scenes from the Life of Christ are the most common subjects, especially the images of Christ on the Cross. Scenes from the Old Testament play a part in the art of most Christian denominations. Images of the Virgin Mary, holding the infant Jesus, and images of saints are much rarer in Protestant art than that of Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. For the benefit of the illiterate, an elaborate iconographic system developed to conclusively identify scenes. For example, Saint Agnes depicted with a lamb, Saint Peter with keys, Saint Patrick with a shamrock. Each saint holds or is associated with attributes and symbols in sacred art. History: Virgin and Child. Wall painting from the early catacombs, Rome, 4th century. Early Christian art survives from dates near the origins of Christianity. The oldest surviving Christian paintings are from the site at Megiddo, dated to around the year 70, and the oldest Christian sculptures are from sarcophagi, dating to the beginning of the 2nd century. Until the adoption of Christianity by Constantine Christian art derived its style and much of its iconography from popular Roman art, but from this point grand Christian buildings built under imperial patronage brought a need for Christian versions of Roman elite and official art, of which mosaics in churches in Rome are the most prominent surviving examples. During the development of early Christian art in the Byzantine empire (see Byzantine art), a more abstract aesthetic replaced the naturalism previously established in Hellenistic art. This new style was hieratic, meaning its primary purpose was to convey religious meaning rather than accurately render objects and people. Realistic perspective, proportions, light and colour were ignored in favour of geometric simplification of forms, reverse perspective and standardized conventions to portray individuals and events. The controversy over the use of graven images, the interpretation of the Second Commandment, and the crisis of Byzantine Iconoclasm led to a standardization of religious imagery within the Eastern Orthodoxy.
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An example of a Madonna with an Angel, painted by Sandro Botticelli (1470) and commissioned by the Catholic Church during the Renaissance in Florence (Boston, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum) . The Renaissance saw an increase in monumental secular works, but until the Protestant Reformation Christian art continued to be produced in great quantities, both for churches and clergy and for the laity. During this time, Michelangelo Buonarroti painted the Sistine Chapel and carved the famous Pietà, Gianlorenzo Bernini created the massive columns in St. Peter's Basilica, and Leonardo da Vinci painted the Last Supper. The Reformation had a huge effect on Christian art, rapidly bringing the production of public Christian art to a virtual halt in Protestant countries, and causing the destruction of most of the art that already existed. As a secular, non-sectarian, universal notion of art arose in 19th-century Western Europe, secular artists occasionally treated Christian themes (Bouguereau, Manet). Only rarely was a Christian artist included in the historical canon (such as Rouault or Stanley Spencer). However many modern artists such as Eric Gill, Marc Chagall, Henri Matisse, Jacob Epstein, Elisabeth Frink and Graham Sutherland have produced well-known works of art for churches.[2] Through a social interpretation of Christianity, Fritz von Uhde also revived the interest in sacred art, through the depiction of Jesus in ordinary places in life.
Since the advent of printing, the sale of reproductions of pious works has been a major element of popular Christian culture. In the 19th century, this included genre painters such as Mihály Munkácsy. The invention of color lithography led to broad circulation of holy cards. In the modern era, companies specializing in modern commercial Christian artists such as Thomas Blackshear and Thomas Kinkade, although widely regarded in the fine art world as kitsch, have been very successful. The last part of the 20th and the first part of the 21st century have seen a focused effort by artists who claim faith in Christ to re-establish art with themes that revolve around faith, Christ, God, the Church, the Bible and other classic Christian themes as worthy of respect by the secular art world. Artists such as Makoto Fujimura have had significant influence both in sacred and secular arts. Other notable artists include Larry D. Alexander, Gary P. Bergel, Carlos Cazares, Bruce Herman, Deborah Sokolove, and John August Swanson.
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Confucian art is art inspired by the writings of Confucius, and Confucian teachings. Confucian art originated in China, then spread westwards on the Silk road, southward down to southern China and then onto Southeast Asia, and eastwards through northern China on to Japan and Korea. While it still maintains a strong influence within Indonesia, Confucian influence on western art has been limited. While Confucian themes enjoyed representation in Chinese art centers, they are fewer in comparison to the number of artworks that are about or influenced by Daoism and Buddhism. Hindu art Hinduism, with its 1 billion followers, it makes up about 15% of the world's population and as such the culture that ensues it is full of different aspects of life that are effected by art. There are 64 traditional arts that are followed that start with the classics of music and range all the way to the application and adornment of jewellery. Since religion and culture are inseparable with Hinduism recurring symbols such as the gods and their reincarnations, the lotus flower, extra limbs, and even the traditional arts make their appearances in many sculptures, paintings, music, and dance. Islamic art: A specimen of Islamic sacred art: in the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, the upper part of the mihrab (prayer niche) is decorated with 9th-century lusterware tiles and painted intertwined vegetal motifs.A prohibition against depicting representational images in religious art, as well as the naturally decorative nature of Arabic script, led to the use of calligraphic nuni minimi minimumdecorations, which usually involved repeating geometrical patterns and vegetal forms (arabesques) that expressed ideals of order and nature. These were used on religious architecture, carpets, and handwritten documents.Islamic art has reflected this balanced, harmonious world-view. It focuses on spiritual essence rather than physical form. While there has been an aversion to potential idol worship through Islamic history, this is a distinctly modern Sunni view. Persian miniatures, along with medieval depictions of Muhammad and angels in Islam, stand as prominent examples contrary to the modern Sunni tradition. Also, Shi'a Muslims are much less averse to the depiction of figures, including the Prophet's as long as the depiction is respectful.
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Figure representation: The Islamic resistance to the representation of living beings ultimately stems from the belief that the creation of living forms is unique to God. It is for this reason that the role of images and image makers has been controversial.
The strongest statements on the subject of figural depiction are made in the Hadith (Traditions of the Prophet), where painters are challenged to "breathe life" into their creations and threatened with punishment on the Day of Judgment. The Ardabil Carpet, a Persian carpet, Tabriz, mid-16th century, depicts floral gardens shaped in a manner that reflects the Islamic symbolism of paradise. The Qur'an is less specific but condemns idolatry and uses the Arabic term musawwir ("maker of forms", or artist) as an epithet for God. Partially as a result of this religious sentiment, figures in painting were often stylized and, in some cases, the destruction of figurative artworks occurred. Iconoclasm was previously known in the Byzantine period and aniconicism was a feature of the Judaic world, thus placing the Islamic objection to figurative representations within a larger context. As ornament, however, figures were largely devoid of any larger significance and perhaps therefore posed less challenge. As with other forms of Islamic ornamentation, artists freely adapted and stylized basic human and animal forms, giving rise to a great variety of figural-based designs.Islamic calligraphy: Calligraphy is a highly regarded element of Islamic art. The Qur'an was transmitted in Arabic, and inherent within the Arabic script is the potential for ornamental forms. The employment of calligraphy as ornament had a definite aesthetic appeal but often also included an underlying talismanic component.
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While most works of art had legible inscriptions, not all Muslims would have been able to read them. One should always keep in mind, however, that calligraphy is principally a means to transmit a text, albeit in a decorative form.From its simple and primitive early examples of the 5th and 6th century AD, the Arabic alphabet developed rapidly after the rise of Islam in the 7th century into a beautiful form of art. The main two families of calligraphic styles were the dry styles, called generally the Kufic, and the soft cursive styles, which include Naskhi, Thuluth, Nastaliq and many others. Islamic geometric patterns: Geometric patterns make up one of the three nonfigural types of decoration in Islamic art. Whether isolated or used in combination with nonfigural ornamentation or figural representation, geometric patterns are popularly associated with Islamic art, largely due to their aniconic quality. These abstract designs not only adorn the surfaces of monumental Islamic architecture but also function as the major decorative element on a vast array of objects of all types. Jain art :Jain art refers to religious works of art associated with Jainism. Even though Jainism spread only in some parts of India, it has made a significant contribution to Indian art and architecture. Sikh art and culture: The art, culture, identity and societies of the Sikhs has been merged with different locality and ethnicity of different Sikhs into categories such as 'Agrahari Sikhs', 'Dakhni Sikhs' and 'Assamese Sikhs'; however there has emerged a niche cultural phenomenon that can be described as 'Political Sikh'. The art of diaspora Sikhs such as Amarjeet Kaur Nandhra,and Amrit and Rabindra Kaur Singh (The Singh Twins), is partly informed by their Sikh spirituality and influence. Taoist art: Taoist Art (also spelled as Daoist art) relates to the Taoist philosophy and narratives of Lao-tzu (also spelled as Laozi) that promote "living simply and honestly and in harmony with nature."
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2- a brief history of religion in art
Before we began putting art into museums, art mostly served as the visual counterpart to religious stories. Are these theological paintings, sculptures, textiles and illuminations from centuries ago still relevant to us. Global Art History, defined as transcultural, means finding a language to describe and analyse the processes of interaction that are constitutive of art practice – such as copying, translation, adaptation, reconfiguration , even refusal or resistance. Modern art includes artistic work produced during the period extending roughly from the 1860s to the 1970s, and denotes the styles and philosophies of the art produced during that era. The term is usually associated with art in which the traditions of the past have been thrown aside in a spirit of experimentation. Modern artists experimented with new ways of seeing and with fresh ideas about the nature of materials and functions of art. A tendency away from the narrative, which was characteristic for the traditional arts, toward abstraction is characteristic of much modern art. More recent artistic production is often called contemporary art or postmodern art.Modern art begins with the heritage of painters like Vincent van Gogh, Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec all of whom were essential for the development of modern art. As visible religion, art communicates religious beliefs, customs, and values through iconography and depictions of the human body. The foundational principle for the interconnections between art and religion is the reciprocity between image making and meaning making as creative correspondence of humanity with divinity. Religious art is any work whose theme supports the moral message of the religion it purports to illustrate. In this context, religion means any set of human beliefs relating to that which they regard as sacred, holy, spiritual or divine - whether or not deities are involved. Common Types of Religious Art.