A. Economic , marketing, business management, bank and finance
1- Economy
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There are various definitions of the term economy. Economics is often defined as a discipline that focuses on finding ways to effectively allocate limited resources. Or, for short, economics is the study of supply and demand. For those who have never studied it, economics seems to be nothing more than the two definitions given above. Of course, both of the above definitions are correct, but accuracy does not mean all right, For myself, I think the economy is embedded in every event we face every day. Or making people's lives better. We can observe every situation, from the smallest to the most important. For example, you want to buy new clothes. At that time, even if you are not aware, you may have weighed in advance the "utility" of spending on new clothes, which can be refreshing or praised by friends when they see your new clothes. At the same time, you may need to weigh the positive effects on the "Opportunity Cost" that will inevitably occur, because in order to buy you have to spend the resources (money) that you can use on Other options, such as going to the movies, eating delicious food at your favorite store, etc., if you decide not to buy the clothes. This is the economy. And the idea that we can think of, on the other hand, is the ability to create a regime that improves the lives of the people, which is an economic activity, such as agriculture, industry and so on.
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And national economic goals include: efficiency, equity, economic freedom, full employment, economic growth, security and stability. Economic goals do not always correspond to each other. The cost of setting a specific goal or set of goals is less resource-intensive to commit to the remaining goals. The four main economic concepts of supply and demand, costs, benefits and incentives can help explain many of the decisions people make. Due to lack of resources, people often make choices that are determined by their costs and benefits and the incentives offered by different activity sessions. And the economic environment refers to all the external economic factors that affect the purchasing habits of consumers and businesses and thus affect the performance of the company. These factors are often under the control of the company and can be large (macro) or small (micro) . Economics Growth, on the other hand, is an increase in the production of economic goods and services compared to time, which can be measured by nominal or real (adjusted inflation). Traditionally, GDP growth has been measured in terms of gross domestic product (GNP) or gross domestic product (GDP), although the matrix is sometimes used instead.
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History of the economy
The history of the concept of economics is the study of the philosophies of various thinkers and theories in the subject, which later became economics, politics and economics from ancient times to the present in the 21st century. History of economics can not explain as specific sources but it can explain you how to use in your daily life . The concept of economics is as backward as ancient Greece and was perceived as a major theme in the ancient Middle East. Today, Scottish thinker Adam Smith is widely praised for his economic development. However, he was inspired by a French writer who shared his hatred of theology. In fact, the first methodological study of how economic work was carried out by these French scientists. Smith took many of their ideas and expanded them into a thesis on how economics should function as opposed to how they work. Adam Smith believed that competition was self-governing and that governments should not engage in business through tariffs, taxes or other means unless it was to protect free market competition. Many economic theories today are at least partly a reaction to Adam Smith's most important work in this field, his 1776 work, National Assets. In this book, Adam Smith outlines some of the mechanisms of production, free market capitalism, and value. Adam Smith points out that individuals who act for their own benefit can be led by an "invisible hand," creating social and economic stability and prosperity for all. In the long run for millions of years to come? " An economic question for sure. Should one look for other resources that have never been used on this earth? Or to explore resources on other planets? (It may not be as easy as that, but not sure!). Simply put, I want you to understand that the economy is much broader than the conservative definition. Of course, as long as we talk about the economy, we can talk about money, interest rates, inflation or unemployment. But I want you to understand that economics is not just that.
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Modern economy
We can say that a modern economy is a choice in any activity that involves money that we use to do business in a fast and efficient production chain that is used appropriately in everyday life or the world economy and current situation. As we can define the modern economy that is often used, there are four parts: the economic system: market capitalism, socialism, command economy, command capitalism. An economic system is a compilation of resources in the production and service systems of a society. Market Capitalism, on the other hand, refers to the market, usually defined as a system in which individuals and corporations own the means of production in which private investment leads the economy and a competitive market connects employers and workers. For example, medical companies invest on related activities and direct medicine and therapy. Socialism is a populist economic and political system based on public ownership (also known as collective or common ownership) of the means of production. Command economy is when the central government planner owns or controls the means of production and limits the distribution of yields. For example, companies related to the rice sector, where the state invests with the people and sets the selling and distribution prices. Command capitalism refers to private individuals or businesses with capital assets. The production of goods and services is based on supply and demand in a common market known as a market economy, rather than through central planning, known as an economic plan or a controlled economy. And it is similar to the form of capitalism as well. For example, businesses using personal resource investments, such as investments in private oil companies, set prices based on market and social conditions.
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Economic forecast
Economic forecasting is the process of trying to predict the future of the economy using a combination of the results achieved and the use of products that follow a wide variety of different methods. Government officials and business managers use economic forecasts to determine fiscal and monetary policy and future action plans, respectively. Such as forecasting the international economy from the present to the future according to the plan of each country's organization, which they expect to be able to achieve a high level of results. We know that the international economic situation has been severely affected by Cov19 disease since the end of 2019 until now. The world has shut down the country and put an end to many investment activities. And only a handful of countries have resumed their operations once their governments have taken control of the situation. However, this control is not clear, as long as the cov19 virus persists and continues to evolve into new forms. If all countries return to normal, the GDP of the developed countries in Asia will be expected to increase, including technology and tourism and agriculture. But it can be very sensitive because we can not predict the disease or natural disasters that may occur in the future in what form and to what extent. But we can think of preventive measures by experience and rehabilitate prevent climate change.
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Psychological analysis of economics
Paul Schilder, MD, Ph.D. Any phenomenon in human life that can not be approached from the point of view of psychology. However, to be perfectly accurate, one must qualify for such a statement as one approaches nature. As humans in nature, we are active in nature. At the same time, nature goes its own way. The way we adapt to nature and what we do with the problems that nature puts before us belongs to the field of psychology. As we may say, this is natural within defined rules. When we do something to nature and the outside world, the events of the outside world go differently. This does not mean that from now on what can happen is a manifestation of our own psychology and actions. We can add that many of our institutions, customs, and habits that were created as a result of cultural processes became independent when we created them. We deal here with the "spirit of purpose" (geographical targeter) of the German philosopher Hegel. Hegel did not think that cultural achievements were merely the result of human activity in the outside world, but believed in a creative spirit that manifested itself in its own way in various forms of cultural achievement. One should keep these ideas in Hegel's mind since materialism, the dialects of Marx and Angel are influenced by Hegel's views. And the economic model of psychological analysis brings a new perspective on personality. One that focuses on energy and momentum. For example, in the current economic crisis caused by the cov19 disease, many people are suffering from the stress of losing their source of income and employment. Which brings about a change in the economic plan as a new and quick form in the context necessary to improve the situation.
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Economic Law
Economic law is a set of rules for regulating economic activity. In the legal system of the Soviet Union, economic law was a theory and legal system in which economic relations were a rule of law without criminal and civil law. In the Soviet legal system, the purpose of economic law was to govern relations arising from economic activity. The theory of independence of economic law was continued after the 21st Congress of the CPSU in 1959, with the main proponent V.V. Laptev. After debate, the position was approved by a decree of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR during 1970-1975 and finalized in the 1977 Soviet Constitution. And economic law is very important in real life. Some economic laws apply to all types of economic systems. They have a universal application. For example, we have a law of decreasing returns. Application and management Discover and elaborate on three rules: natural economic law, market regulation law, and macroeconomic governance law. Natural economic law refers to natural law (mother law), the three main uses of which promote economic development in a cycle. Ten Basic Laws of the Economy: Production Leads Consumption, Consumption is the final goal pf production ,
- production Costs, value is subjective , productivity determines wages rates ,
- Expenditure is income and costs, Money is not wealth , Labor does not create value ,
- Profit is the entrepreneurial bonus , All genuine laws of economics are logical laws.
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Philosophy of Economics
Philosophy of economics deals with the problems, perspectives, methods and ethics that arise in the scientific discipline of economics. Finally, the philosophy of economics deals with practical social assumptions made by economists. The "Philosophy of Economics" includes questions related to (A) rational choices, (B) evaluation of economic, institutional and process results, and (C) scientific theories of economic phenomena and access to knowledge about them. Although these questions overlap in many ways, it is useful to divide the philosophy of economics in this way into three topics that can be considered branches of the theory of ethical action (or social and political philosophy) and scientific philosophy. The economic theories of rationality, well-being, and social choice defend important philosophical theories that are often informed by relevant philosophical literature and of practical interest to those interested in theories of action, psychology, philosophy, and social and political philosophy. Economics is of particular interest to those interested in the legends and philosophies of science, both because of its peculiarities and because of its many features of the natural sciences, as its objects are social phenomena.
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Political economy
Political economy is the study of production and trade and their relationship with customary law and government. And with the distribution of income and national wealth. The term political economy refers to the branch of social science that focuses on the relationship between individuals, government, and public policy. It is also used to describe government-defined policies that affect their country's economy. Today, the term "economy" refers to a narrow study of economics that does not consider other political and social considerations, while the term "political economy" represents a unique and competitive approach. There are three main types of economies: free markets, orders, and mixed. And political-economic analysis is about understanding the political dimension of a context and actively using this information to inform policies and programs. Politics is a formal and informal way in which competition or cooperation takes place in a society. The importance of political economy can be designed to give you an understanding of the hierarchical structure and power dynamics that govern finance and trade, promote globalization and economic nationalism, and influence the distribution of wealth and poverty across states and regions and the world.
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2- microeconomic
Microeconomics is a very similar definition in economics textbooks. We can say that microeconomics: a study of the behavior of family enterprises in the use and selection of rare resources, this study includes: enterprise pricing policy, demand and supply, family decisions on what to buy and How to market resources. And microeconomics is the analysis of decisions made by individuals and groups, the factors that influence those decisions and how those decisions affect others. "Microeconomic decisions by both small and medium-sized businesses Individuals are primarily motivated by consideration of costs and benefits. Expenses can be both financial costs such as average fixed costs and total variable costs, or they may be in terms of opportunity costs considering options. Then Microeconomics consider the patterns of supply and demand that are driven by individual decisions and the factors that influence these value-benefit relationships. Individuals to understand the process of their decision making and how it affects the prices of goods and services.
For example, a family business that you have set up privately and a family that you have to manage, understand the cost, set the principles of sales or services yourself.
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3- macroeconomic
Macroeconomics studies the processes and problems of the economy as a whole, such as economic growth, inflation, unemployment, and economic variability.
Points of interest in the economy are: resource allocation, production, trade management and competition. The fundamentals of the economy are increasingly being used to address issues related to options under scarcity or economic pricing. Macroeconomics is a comprehensive study of the economy and has two main objectives: to understand the causes and consequences of short-term changes in national income, and second, to understand the factors that determine the long-term growth of the national economy. Macroeconomic models are used by governments and large enterprises to evaluate and develop economic policies and business strategies. Example: How do families and individuals spend? What goods and services meet their needs? Do they work full time or part time? How much will they save in the future? How much money do they need to borrow to meet their current needs? How many products does this company produce and sell? How will the company change the price? How many employees do they have to hire? Although microeconomics is smaller than macroeconomics, it also contributes significantly to national economic development.
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How to calculate 7 cost measures
Use linear and nonlinear equations to determine values
There are several definitions of cost, including the following seven terms: low cost, total cost, fixed price, total variable price, average total price, average fixed price, and average variable price.
When asked to calculate these 7 cost measures on assignments or tests, the data you need is likely to be in one of three forms:
1. In a table that provides data on total costs and production volumes.
2. Linear equations related to total cost (TC) and production volume (Q).
3. Non-linear equations related to total value (TC) and production volume (Q).
First, determine each of the values of the 7 conditions and then look at how to solve the 3 conditions.
Determine the terms of payment
Cost is the cost a company incurs when producing a better product. Suppose we are producing two goods and we want to know how much the cost will increase if we increase production to three goods. The difference is the cost in the order of 2 to 3. It can be calculated by:
Marathon cost (2 to 3) = total production cost 3 - total production cost 2.
For example, say it costs 600 to produce 3 goods and 390 to produce 2 goods. The difference between the two figures is 210, so that is our minimal cost.
The total cost is just all the costs incurred in the production of some goods.
Fixed cost is an independent cost of the quantity of goods produced or more, costs incurred in the absence of production.
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The total variable value is the opposite of the fixed value. These are costs that change when more is produced. For example, the total variable cost of 4 units is calculated by:
Total variable cost of 4 units = Total cost of 4 units - Total cost of 0 units. In this case, let's say it takes 840 to make 4 and 130 to make 0.
Then the total variable value when producing 4 units is 710 since 810-130 = 710.
The average total cost is a fixed cost rather than the number of units produced. So if we produce 5 units, our formula is:
Total cost of production 5 = Total cost of production 5 units / number of units
If the total cost of production 5 is 1200, the average total value is 1200/5 = 240.
The average fixed price is the fixed cost of the number of units given by the formula:
Average fixed price = fixed price / number of units
As you may have guessed, the formula for the average variable cost is:
Average variable value = total variable value / number of units
Provided data table
Sometimes a chart or chart will give you a small expense and you will have to think about the total cost. You can find the total cost of producing two goods using the equation:
Total cost of production 2 = total cost of production 1 + moderate cost (1 to 2)
A chart will provide information regarding the cost of producing a commodity, which is low cost and fixed cost. Let's say the cost of a good production is 250 and the low cost of another production is 140. In this case, the total value is 250 + 140 = 390. So the total cost of producing 2 goods is 390.
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Linear equations
This section examines how to calculate cost, total cost, fixed cost, total variable cost, average total cost, average fixed cost, and average variable value when providing linear equations with respect to total cost and volume. Linear equations are equations without logs. As an example, use the equation TC = 50 + 6Q.
Since the equation TC = 50 + 6Q means that the total value increases by 6 whenever the addition is good, as indicated by the coefficient before Q. This means that there is a constant value of 6 per unit.
The total value is represented by TC. So if we want to calculate the total value for a certain quantity, all we have to do is substitute the quantity for the query. So the total cost of producing 10 is 50 + 6 * 10 = 110.
Remember that fixed costs are the costs we incur when no equipment is manufactured. So to find a constant value instead of Q = 0 for the equation. The result is 50 + 6 * 0 = 50. So our fixed value is 50. Recall that the total variable cost is the non-fixed cost that occurs when the Q unit is manufactured. Thus, the total variable cost can be calculated with the equation:
Total variable cost = total cost - fixed cost
The total cost is 50 + 6Q and as explained, the fixed value is 50 in this example. So the total variable value is (50 + 6Q) - 50 or 6Q. We can now calculate the total variable value at a given point by substituting the query.
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Now to the average total cost. To find the total cost (AC), you need to spend the average total cost on the number of units we produce. Take the total cost formula TC = 50 + 6Q and divide right to get the average total value. It looks like AC = (50 + 6Q) / Q = 50 / Q + 6. To get the average total value in a specific case instead of Q. For example, the total cost of production 5 is 50/5 + 6 = 10. + 6 = 16.
Similarly, just divide the fixed cost by the number of units available to find the average fixed cost. Since our fixed cost is 50, our average fixed cost is 50 / Q. As you estimated, to calculate the mean variable value, you divide the variable cost by the query. Since the variable value is 6Q, the average variable value is 6. Note that the average variable value does not depend on the quantity produced and the cost as thickness. This is one of the features of the linear model, but will not be associated with non-linear formations.