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Inequality: Inequality—the state of not being equal, especially in status, rights, and opportunitie . These inequality symbols are: less than (<), greater than (>), less than or equal (≤), greater than or equal (≥) and the not equal symbol (≠). Inequality or economic inequality refers to the difference between the rich and poor, the have and have-nots – it is shown by people's different positions within the economic distribution – wealth, pay and income. Inequality is large in a society where few people own a disproportionate amount of the economic pie. Inequality studies may also examine the difference between various socioeconomic groups in society, such as working class and poor households versus people with a university degree, or men versus women. The term refers to the unfair situation in society where some individuals have considerably more money, access to education, opportunities, etc. than others. For as long as anybody can remember, economists have been debating whether economic growth creates less or more equality, and whether equal societies grow more or less slowly than unequal ones. Three types of inequality : Income Inequality: refers to how unevenly income is distributed in society.
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Income is not the same as pay. Income includes all the money people receive from employment – wages, bonuses, salaries, etc. – plus investments, state benefits, rent, and pensions. Economists and sociologists may measure income on a household or individual basis. Gross income is what we receive before tax, while net income is what we are left with after taxes and insurance contributions have been paid.
Income distribution looks at the incomes of different socioeconomic groups in a country, industry, or company. Pay Inequality: refers just to payment from employment, and includes bonuses and overtime. It can be based per hour, per month or per year. The pay gap is the difference in pay between one group of people and another, either within one company or across a whole city, region or nation.
Wealth Inequality: all our assets, everything we possess, is our wealth. A person's or household's wealth includes all their financial assets, such as stocks or bonds, private pension rights, property, etc. Studies have shown that extreme poverty slows economic growth more severely than income inequality itself. Extremely poor people are unable to receive or buy the education required to enable them to raise their standard of living. Very poor people's children typically have to miss school in order to earn money.
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Scaling a business : setting the stage to enable and support growth in your company. It means having the ability to grow without being hampered. It requires planning, some funding and the right systems, staff, processes, technology and partners. A scalable business can be served up to exponentially more and more people without incurring an exponential number of operating costs. Digital products, courses, and blogs are great examples of scalable businesses. Scaling your business means you're able to handle an increase in sales, work, or output in a cost-effective, reasonable manner. Your company can handle growth without suffering in other areas (e.g., employee turnover because of heavy workloads or a product that can't be produced fast enough to meet demand). Your business should be creating a larger client network as well as nurturing the ever-increasing baseline. If customers and clients have to be turned down due to a lack of inventory, lack of employees, or simply not enough time in the day, then it may be time to scale. For a business to be scalable, it must focus on improving the profitability and efficiency of services even when its workload increases. The improvement of profitability and efficiency can only originate from the core of the business' structure and workflow strategy.
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Chain business : any employer that is part of a group of establishments that share a common owner or principal who owns at least thirty percent of each establishment where such establishments engage in the same business or operate pursuant to franchise agreements with the same franchisor as defined in general business law section provided that the total number of employees of all such establishments in such group is at least five. Franchises are not the same as chains. As already mentioned, franchises are typically owned by local individuals. Chains are not. Chains are owned by corporations and do not sell the rights to use their brand name and proprietary systems. Chain store, any of two or more retail stores having the same ownership and selling the same lines of goods. Chain stores account for an important segment of retailing operations in the Americas, western Europe, and Japan. Together with the department store and the mail-order company, chain stores represent the first successful application of large-scale integrated methods to a form of retailing. Regular chain stores must be distinguished from franchises and from voluntary or cooperative chains, in which the retail units preserve their individual ownership. The latter get to keep their own profits and bear their own financial losses, while in regular chains the central organization assumes full responsibility for the financial condition of its selling units. Chain distribution methods existed in China as early as 200 BC and in 17th-century Japan. An early American chain of trading posts was operated by the Hudson's Bay Company . For the most part, however, retail chain stores were not significant until the end of the 19th century.
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Their most substantial growth, both in Europe and in the United States, occurred between 1890 and the 1920s. The pressure of small retailers during the 1930s resulted in legislation that restricted chains in a number of European countries, but the majority of the laws were repealed after World War II. The strongest chains have been those of department stores, grocery stores, limited-price variety stores, ready-to-wear apparel stores such as the Gap, and drugstores. Many banks, hotels, and motion-picture theaters also belong to chains. Chains vary in size from local ones (i.e., serving a single city or metropolitan area) to regional ones (serving a major part of the country) to national or even international ones. They also vary in the class of goods sold, ranging from the inexpensive goods of Target or Wal- Mart to the elitist jewels of Cartier or Tiffany & Co. Most large chain store organizations link together a central unit with warehouse units (i.e., wholesale-distribution centres) and selling units (i.e., retail stores). The central unit contains the administrative offices, while the warehouses handle inbound shipments of goods and send outbound shipments to the individual retail stores. Buying may be a function of both the central unit and the warehouses, but selling and related operations are performed only in the separate retail units. Some chain store organizations even have their own manufacturing facilities and thus carry vertical integration a step farther. Tracking of sales and inventory makes the operation even more efficient by providing constant data on popular products, consumer preferences, and product availability.
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The principal advantages of chain stores include the ability of the central purchasing unit to buy on favourable terms, lower operating costs, the ability to place advertising for all selling units at one time, and the freedom to experiment in one selling unit without risk to the whole operation. Chains are able to buy on more favourable terms than single-unit stores owing to the volume of the central unit's purchases and its ability to bring specialized buying skills to bear in those purchases. Chains can also achieve significant economies by combined wholesaling and retailing operations within the same business organizations, since this structure improves coordination between the two branches and spares the wholesaler from both credit risks and the need for a sales staff. (See economy of scale. ) Many chains achieve further economies by limiting their stock of merchandise to items in widespread demand. The low operating costs achieved by all these factors have enabled chain stores to reduce their selling prices in relation to single-unit stores, as well as to operate on slimmer profit margins. Besides selling in large volume at low prices, the large-scale chains' most significant innovations has been in the area of improved retailing practices. Chain stores pioneered the clean, modern-appearing, well-planned store that has an efficient layout and modern interior lighting. The main competitive disadvantage of chain store organizations is their centralized direction and their rigidly standardized operating procedures, which tend to limit individual selling units' flexibility and hinder useful innovations. Chain stores also tend to offer fewer customer services than individual stores. Disadvantages Of Multiple Shops Or Chain Stores
* More capital required. More capital needs to invest in multiple shops to establish and operate them in different parts of the country.
* Limited range of products.
* Problem of efficient staff.
* Lack of initiative.
* Problem to customers.
* Lack of freedom.
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Comparative advantage is an economy's ability to produce a particular good or service at a lower opportunity cost than its trading partners. A comparative study was defined as a study in which two (or more) curricular treatments were investigated over a substantial period of time (at least one semester, and more typically an entire school year) and a comparison of various curricular outcomes was examined using statistical tests. A comparative advantage gives a company the ability to sell goods and services at a lower price than its competitors and realize stronger sales margins. Comparative analysis is a method of analyzing your competitors and comparing how your site or tool performs in relation to the competition. Knowing what your competitors provide and not provide is always better than guessing on your own. Comparative analysis refers to the comparison of two or more processes, documents, data sets or other objects. Pattern analysis, filtering and decision-tree analytics are forms of comparative analysis. A comparative statement is a document that compares a particular financial statement with prior period statements. Previous financials are presented alongside the latest figures in side-by-side columns, enabling investors to easily track a company's progress and compare it with peers.
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Business risk is the exposure a company or organization has to factor(s) that will lower its profits or lead it to fail. Anything that threatens a company's ability to achieve its financial goals is considered a business risk. However, sometimes the cause of risk is external to a company. Business risk is the possibilities a company will have lower than anticipated profits or experience a loss rather than taking a profit. Business risk is influenced by numerous factors, including sales volume, per-unit price, input costs, competition, and the overall economic climate and government regulations. Here are seven types of business risk you may want to address in your company.
* Economic Risk. The economy is constantly changing as the markets fluctuate.
* Compliance Risk.
* Security and Fraud Risk.
* Financial Risk.
* Reputation Risk.
* Operational Risk.
* Competition (or Comfort) Risk.
Managing and reducing risk involves putting processes, methods and tools in place to deal with the outcomes of events you have identified as threats to your business. Top Ways to Manage Business Risks
1. Prioritize. The first step in creating a risk management plan should always be to prioritize risks/threats.
2. Buy Insurance.
3. Limit Liability.
4. Implement a Quality Assurance Program.
5. Limit High-Risk Customers.
6. Control Growth.
7. Appoint a Risk Management Team.
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6- banking and finance
A bank is a financial institution licensed to receive deposits and make loans. Banks may also provide financial services such as wealth management, currency exchange, and safe deposit boxes. There are several different kinds of banks including retail banks, commercial or corporate banks, and investment banks. In most countries, banks are regulated by the national government or central bank. Bank is a tangible object, while banking is a service. – Bank refers to the physical resources like building, staffs, furniture, etc, while banking is the output (financial services) of the bank by utilizing those resources. Banks make a profit by charging more interest to borrowers than they pay on savings accounts. Banks are a very important part of the economy because they provide vital services for both consumers and businesses. As financial services providers, they give you a safe place to store your cash. Through a variety of account types such as checking and savings accounts, and certificates of deposit (CDs), you can conduct routine banking transactions like deposits, withdrawals, check writing, and bill payments. You can also save your money and earn interest on your investment. The money stored in most bank accounts is federally insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), up to a limit of $250,000 for individual depositors and $500,000 for jointly held deposits.Banks also provide credit opportunities for people and corporations. The money you deposit at the bank—short-term cash—is used to lend to others for long-term debt such as car loans, credit cards, mortgages, and other debt vehicles. This process helps create liquidity in the market—which creates money and keeps the supply going. Just like any other business, the goal of a bank is to earn a profit for its owners.
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For most banks, the owners are their shareholders. Banks do this by charging more interest on the loans and other debt they issue to borrowers than what they pay to people who use their savings vehicles. Using a simple example, a bank that pays 1% interest on savings accounts and charges 6% interest for loans earns a gross profit of 5% for its owners. Banks make a profit by charging more interest to borrowers than they pay on savings accounts. Banks range in size based on where they're located and who they serve—from small, community-based institutions to large commercial banks. According to the FDIC there were just over 4,500 FDIC-insured commercial banks in the United States as of 2019.2 This number includes national banks, state-chartered banks, commercial banks, and other financial institutions. While traditional banks offer both a brick-and-mortar location and an online presence, a new trend in online-only banks emerged in the early 2010s. These banks often offer consumers higher interest rates and lower fees. Convenience, interest rates, and fees are some of the factors that help consumers decide their preferred banks.
Financing is the process of providing funds for business activities, making purchases, or investing. Financial institutions, such as banks, are in the business of providing capital to businesses, consumers, and investors to help them achieve their goals. Financial management is defined as dealing with and analyzing money and investments for a person or a business to help make business decisions. An example of financial management is the work done by an accounting department for a company. The three types of financial management decisions are capital budgeting, capital structure, and working capital management.
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A financial system is a set of institutions, such as banks, insurance companies, and stock exchanges, that permit the exchange of funds. Financial systems exist on firm, regional, and global levels. Borrowers, lenders, and investors exchange current funds to finance projects, either for consumption or productive investments, and to pursue a return on their financial assets. The financial system also includes sets of rules and practices that borrowers and lenders use to decide which projects get financed, who finances projects, and terms of financial deals. A banking system is a group or network of institutions that provide financial services for us. These institutions are responsible for operating a payment system, providing loans, taking deposits, and helping with investments. There are several different kinds of banks including retail banks, commercial or corporate banks, and investment banks. In most countries, banks are regulated by the national government or central bank. Types of Banking System:
* Group Banking. Banking system designed to be used by groups rather than individuals.
* Chain Banking. Chain banking is a situation in which three or more banks that are independently chartered are controlled by a small group of people.
* Mixed Banking.
* Branch Banking.
* Unit Banking.
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Banking and Finance explores the dynamic, fast-paced world of money, shares, credit and investments. Finance is an essential part of our economy as it provides the liquidity in terms of money or assets required for individuals and businesses to invest for the future. When you choose to major in Banking and Finance you will explore the systemised movement and management of money. In firms, the finance function ensures that activities are funded with equity or debt and the firms can chose value-enhancing project and manage cash flows, risk and liquidity in the interest of their stakeholders. Financial markets are very important and understanding the pricing of assets and derivative securities is vital. Financial intermediaries such as banks are key players in these financial markets. Banking is also a global industry with over 60 banks operating across Australia and thousands of institutions and investment houses across the world dealing with money circulation, credit, investments, financing, superannuation and more. Finance is continuously changing which makes this subject a fascinating area to study. Types of Banks: They are given below:
* Commercial Banks: These banks play the most important role in modern economic organisation.
* Exchange Banks: Exchange banks finance mostly the foreign trade of a country.
* Industrial Banks.
* Agricultural or Co-operative Banks
* Savings Banks.
* Central Banks.
* Utility of Banks.
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6- conclusion
contribution to economic analysis
Summarizing Economic Relations and Economic Analysis We can say that the management economy (sometimes referred to as the commercial economy) is part of the economic science that uses microeconomic analysis as a means of making decisions. In business or in other management areas. It is therefore a bridge between economic theory and economics in practice. Management economics often uses quantitative methods such as regression analysis, correlation analysis, and Lagrangian calculus. The purpose of a management economy is to enable better business decisions to be made to achieve enterprise goals, such as through research, operations, and programs. Almost all business decisions can be analyzed using the methods of the management economy, but generally for:
* Risk analysis: Various models are used to measure risk and synchronize information for use in risk management decision making.
* Production analysis: Microeconomic methods are used to analyze production efficiency, factors that improve supply, costs, economic size, and to estimate the cost function of an enterprise.
* Price Analysis: Microeconomic methods are used to analyze pricing, including transfer fees, joint product prices, discrimination, price delays, and the selection of optimal pricing methods.
* Capital: Investment theory is used to examine a company's capital purchase decision.
At the college, the subject is taught primarily to undergraduate and postgraduate students of the School of Business. It is a combination of many different subjects. In many countries, business economics has always included economics, management, economics, finance, theory, gambling, measurement, trade, and industrial economics. And we can use the methods we have studied to modify and achieve the results that result from the use of the concept of national development towards modernization, causing a great deal of change in the social situation in all areas, whether in the economic, political. Culture, society and environment.
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The process of change is complex, making it difficult to explain its causes and consequences, as each change is an interrelated suffix. Positive development outcomes include the emergence of economic growth rates, material and material growth, modern communication systems, and the expansion of the education system. But all these positive results spread to those in rural areas or those with little social opportunity. But the current of social change is also accompanied by negative effects, such as agricultural markets, brokers, and the loss of natural resources. Systematic grouping of rural farmers can help prevent the loss of residual natural resources. What is important is the adequacy of farmers' daily lives, which are the basic conditions that enable them to be self-reliant and to lead a dignified life and the freedom to determine their own success. Ability to manage and organize oneself to receive responses to various needs, including the ability to manage various issues on one's own. All of this is considered a fundamental potential that people in society have had in the past but have been shaken by the economic crisis and other problems combined. According to the concept of sufficiency economy, the concept points to the principles of guiding the lives of people at all levels, from the family level, the community level, to the national level, both in the development and management of the country to the middle path, especially economic development. To keep pace with globalization
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Adequacy refers to the appropriateness, rationality, and the need for a well-functioning immune system to deal with the effects of both internal and external changes. All this, farmers have to rely on knowledge, thoroughness and great care in applying various knowledge in planning and implementation at all stages. At the same time, farmers need to build the mental base of the people in the society with the help of the authorities, experts and business people at all levels to remember the virtues, honesty, integrity and comprehensive understanding that is appropriate to guide the process. Patient life strives to increase intelligence and meticulousness in order to be equitable and ready for immediate changes in material, social, environmental and cultural aspects from the outside in relation to the adequate economy with the following qualities: : 1. Sufficiency refers to reasonableness that is not too little or too much without harassing oneself and others, such as production and consumption in moderation. 2. Reasonableness refers to decisions regarding the level of sufficiency. Farmers, for example, need to plan their lives rationally, taking into account the relevant factors, including the details of what is predicted to happen through all those actions. 3. Defensive system refers to the readiness to withstand the impact and changes that will occur in the future, taking into account the course of various situations that are predicted to occur in the future. With the conditions of decision making and performance of work to be within two appropriate levels, such as: 1. Comprehensive knowledge of various skills, especially knowledge of the economic processes involved in all areas and details that can bring knowledge to a consistent consideration to aid in planning and precaution. In implementing the plan. 2. The conditions of virtue that need to be strengthened include confidence in virtue, honesty, integrity, and patience, diligence, and the use of intellect in directing one's life.
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B. politics
1- Political science
Political science is the scientific study of politics. It is a social science dealing with systems of governance and power, and the analysis of political activities, political thought, political behavior, and associated constitutions and laws. Modern political science can generally be divided into the three subdisciplines of comparative politics, international relations, and political theory.Other notable subdisciplines are public policy and administration, domestic politics and government (often studied within comparative politics), political economy, and political methodology.Furthermore, political science is related to, and draws upon, the fields of economics, law, sociology, history, philosophy, human geography, journalism, political anthropology, psychology, and social policy. Political science is methodologically diverse and appropriates many methods originating in psychology, social research, and cognitive neuroscience. Approaches include positivism, interpretivism, rational choice theory, behaviouralism, structuralism, post-structuralism, realism, institutionalism, and pluralism. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources, such as historical documents and official records, secondary sources, such as scholarly journal articles, survey research, statistical analysis, case studies, experimental research, and model building.
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Political science is methodologically diverse; political scientists approach the study of politics from a host of different ontological orientations and with a variety of different tools. Because political science is essentially a study of human behaviour, in all aspects of politics, observations in controlled environments are often challenging to reproduce or duplicate, though experimental methods are increasingly common (see experimental political science).Citing this difficulty, former American Political Science Association President Lawrence Lowell once said "We are limited by the impossibility of experiment. Politics is an observational, not an experimental science."[14] Because of this, political scientists have historically observed political elites, institutions, and individual or group behaviour in order to identify patterns, draw generalizations, and build theories of politics.Like all social sciences, political science faces the difficulty of observing human actors that can only be partially observed and who have the capacity for making conscious choices, unlike other subjects such as non-human organisms in biology or inanimate objects as in physics. Despite the complexities, contemporary political science has progressed by adopting a variety of methods and theoretical approaches to understanding politics, and methodological pluralism is a defining feature of contemporary political science.
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Empirical political science methods include the use of field experiments,surveys and survey experiments,case studies,process tracing,historical and institutional analysis,ethnography,participant observation,and interview research. Political scientists also use and develop theoretical tools like game theory and agent-based models to study a host of political systems and situations. Political theorists approach theories of political phenomena with a similar diversity of positions and tools, including feminist political theory, historical analysis associated with the Cambridge school, and Straussian approaches. ( The "Straussian" approach to the history of political philosophy is articulated primarily in the writings of Leo Strauss. Strauss wrote extremely careful, detailed studies of canonical philosophical works along with essays explaining his approach. ) Political science may overlap with topics of study that are the traditional focuses of other social sciences—for example, when sociological norms or psychological biases are connected to political phenomena. In these cases, political science may either inherit their methods of study or develop a contrasting approach. For example, Lisa Wedeen has argued that political science's approach to the idea of culture, originating with Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba and exemplified by authors like Samuel P. Huntington, could benefit from aligning more closely with the study of culture in anthropology. In turn, methodologies that are developed within political science may influence how researchers in other fields, like public health, conceive of and approach political processes and policies.
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Political Theory
Political theory is the study of how we do and should think about the nature and organisation of political life and its limits. It is a contested, and exciting field of inquiry, featuring historical, normative, comparative and applied approaches that are often informed by adjacent debates in moral philosophy, legal theory, historical studies, and political science. Central normative research questions for contemporary political theory include: How might a legitimate or just state be constituted? What gives rulers the authority to rule, and do citizens have a duty to obey? How much, if any, inequality is just? At the same time, political theory constantly finds itself revising its substantive concerns and theoretical assumptions – both in response to actual political developments and by following the dynamic of its own critical inquiry. Thus, feminist thinkers have queried the classic private/public distinction and with it received conceptions of "the political". Theorists of global justice interrogate the limits of state-bounded political morality. Post-colonial theory and comparative political theory explore alternative traditions and marginalized voices to re-think mainstream assumptions. Currently, there are eight political theorists in the Department of Government, which is one of the largest concentrations of specialists in the world. Staff research interests are in diverse areas including comparative political theory, contemporary normative theory, the history of political thought, feminist theory, and rational and social choice theory. Our aim is to expose students to a wide array of different normative issues and methods of inquiry and thereby to enable them to engage critically and constructively with the challenges of an increasingly global political context.
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Making the sense of the literature: types of theories in political science
As you read through political science research sources, you can probably notice many different kinds of research, and different kinds of theory they produce. There are two main types of theory in political science. One kind describes the way reality is, based on empirical evidence. this kind is called descriptive or empirical theory. The other kind tells you how things should be so that other things happen. This kind is called normative theory.Let's take a bit more of a look at them both. Social sciences seek to develop empirical theory. "Empirical" refers to things that can be experienced through the five senses of seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, or (in the case of political corruption) smelling. "Theory" basically means explanation. An empirical theory of politics, then, is an explanation of why people behave the way they do politically. This approach is has become a very important part of political science. In 2001, for example, almost three-quarters of the articles in arguably the top three scholarly journals in the discipline (the American Political Science Review, the American Journal of Political Science, and the Journal of Politics) included analysis of empirical data. If a social scientist (or anyone else) observes people engaging in political behavior, he or she will need to focus on certain characteristics of the people being observed. The observer may wonder why some people differ from others in their political characteristics. Why, for example, do some people vote for the Labour party, while others vote for the Greens?