Zuo Zongtang, a well-known figure in the history of the late Qing Dynasty, had already been appointed as the governor of Shaanxi and Gansu. He was one of the nine highest-ranking officials in the Qing Dynasty, responsible for supervising the military and political affairs of Shaanxi and Gansu provinces. He was also one of the four famous ministers of the late Qing Dynasty, and his reputation shook the court and the public. This time, he was entrusted with the important task of imperial envoy, and his mission was to recover Xinjiang. This was not an easy task, but a daunting task that made everyone hesitant. However, it was something that Zuo Zongtang fought hard for.The Danger of Xinjiang: The Land Crisis Under Internal and External Troubles
Xinjiang, this vast land, was originally called the Western Regions. From Emperor Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty to the 24th year of Qianlong (1759), it took unremitting efforts from three dynasties to pacify this place and name it "Xinjiang". In the middle and late Qianlong period, Xinjiang presented a prosperous scene, with a stable population and booming commercial development along the northwest commercial trunk road from the ancient city (Xinjiang ancient city) to naturalization (Hohhot, Inner Mongolia) to Zhangjiakou.
However, after the Kangxi and Qianlong periods, the national strength of the Qing Dynasty gradually declined. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Uprising swept across half of China, greatly weakening the central government's control over Xinjiang. The government's support for Xinjiang decreased, but taxes continued to increase. This series of measures led to the outbreak of the Xinjiang Hui Rebellion in 1864. Various forces rose one after another, establishing local separatist regimes in Kuche (now Kuche County), Hotan (now Hotan City), Kashgar (now Kashgar Region), Turpan (now Turpan City) and other places, declaring independence.
In this chaotic war, the local power leader Sidier in the old city of Kashgar introduced the aristocrat Agubai from the Central Asian Khanate (mainly Uzbeks), which undoubtedly "lured wolves into the house". Agubai had considerable military ability and intelligence. After entering Xinjiang, he quickly established his own power, launched a campaign to the east and west, and constantly merged other forces. In 1867, Agubai established the "Hongfu Khanate" and unified southern Xinjiang. By the end of 1871, northern Xinjiang was also under its rule, and Agubai became the hegemon of Xinjiang.
What's more serious is that Aguba is backed by two powerful countries. The United Kingdom, a country that has always had ambitions in Xinjiang, sent envoys to meet with Aguba in 1868, recognized the "Hongfu Khanate", and donated a large amount of military equipment to support its establishment of a military factory. Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom personally wrote to Aguba to express her greetings, and the two sides also exchanged ambassadors. Russia also sent people to Kashgar in 1870 to recognize the "Hongfu Khanate" and signed a bilateral treaty with it in 1872. Moreover, in 1870, Sudan Abdul Aziz of the Ottoman Empire also recognized the legal status of the "Hongfu Khanate" under Islamic law. At this point, Aguba's "Hongfu Khanate" has gained a certain degree of recognition internationally, and Xinjiang, 1.66 million square kilometers, is facing a huge crisis of disappearing from China's territory.The dispute between coastal defense "and" frontier defense ": a difficult road to decision-making
Faced with the crisis in Xinjiang, Zuo Zongtang, the governor of Shaanxi and Gansu, strongly advocated for the recovery of Xinjiang. In January 1875, Emperor Guangxu ascended the throne, and Zuo Zongtang believed that this was an opportunity to change the situation, so he wrote a letter requesting troops. However, things did not go smoothly. He encountered huge resistance, mainly from Li Hongzhang, who was equally powerful as him.
Li Hongzhang, who was then the Governor-General of Zhili and the Minister of Beiyang, was also a famous minister of the late Qing Dynasty. After Emperor Guangxu ascended the throne, he put forward seven major proposals, including opening coal mines, iron mines, building power lines, repairing railways, establishing foreign learning academies at various ports, and building a navy. These proposals were highly strategic. However, his seventh proposal - to stop the westward expedition, temporarily abandon Xinjiang, and strengthen coastal defense - caused strong dissatisfaction from Zuo Zongtang, which led to the famous "coastal defense" and "frontier defense" dispute.
In Li Hongzhang's view, Japan is the biggest threat to China's future, so all current affairs should revolve around naval construction and preventing Japan. He wrote: "Xinjiang is a foreign land, vast desert, thousands of miles of red land, barren land, and sparse population. During the Qianlong period, Xinjiang was pacified, and the whole country's efforts were used to collect thousands of miles of open land and increase millions of expenses, which was not worth the loss. In my opinion, if Xinjiang is not recovered, it will not harm the vitality of the body. It is better not to recover Yili than to recover it."
Zuo Zongtang has a different view. He does not deny that Japan is China's arch-rival, but he believes that the most urgent issue at present is the Xinjiang issue. Xinjiang occupies one-sixth of the country's territory, and its importance is self-evident and cannot be easily given up. He wrote to explain: "The north and south of the Tianshan Mountains are rich in grain production, with abundant fruits and melons, cattle and sheep everywhere, and herds of horses. The reserves of coal, iron, gold, silver, and jade are extremely rich. The so-called thousand-mile desert is actually a treasure trove... If Xinjiang is not consolidated, Mongolia will be uneasy, and the border areas of Shaanxi, Gansu, and Shanxi will be invaded from time to time, which will be difficult to guard against. Even if it goes straight to Beiguan Mountain, there will be no day of rest. Moreover, the situation is different from the past. The Russians are expanding their territory day by day, from west to east for more than ten thousand miles, connected to our northern border, with only the Mongols blocking the way in the middle. It is better to move firewood far away, and it is better to go to Qutu first, especially to prepare in advance. "
Although both Li Hongzhang and Zuo Zongtang came from the Xiang Army under Zeng Guofan, in terms of the master-disciple relationship, Li Hongzhang was Zeng Guofan's successor, while Zuo Zongtang was only one year younger than Zeng Guofan and had more of a superior-subordinate relationship with Zeng Guofan. Moreover, Zuo Zongtang never truly obeyed Zeng Guofan throughout his life. From the perspective of inheritance, Zuo Zongtang was more inclined to the lineage of Lin Zexu, who always regarded Russia as a major threat to China.
At that time, Li Hongzhang held a high position and his views were not unreasonable. The majority of people in the court supported "coastal defense". However, at a critical moment, Empress Dowager Cixi made a decision. Cixi supported Zuo Zongtang for the following reasons: firstly, Zuo Zongtang's views were reasonable. 1.66 million square kilometers of land, losing it would be a shame to our ancestors; secondly, Zuo Zongtang was an honest official, and what he advocated was for the country, not for personal gain; thirdly, as a border ethnic minority, the Qing Dynasty had always attached importance to the issue of ethnic minorities. Once the turmoil in Xinjiang spread to ethnic minority areas such as Mongolia, the Qing Dynasty would be in danger. Therefore, Empress Dowager Cixi, who had not yet fully assumed power, weighed the pros and cons and supported Zuo Zongtang, giving him the mission to recover Xinjiang.Preparation for the Western Expedition: Careful Planning and Difficult Financing
Although the decision to recapture Xinjiang was made, Zuo Zongtang faced a series of thorny problems: how to fight this battle? How to ensure the supply of food, supplies, and logistics for the troops when transportation was inconvenient at that time? Where did the military pay come from? How to boost morale? How to deal with the support of Russia and the United Kingdom behind Agubai? These difficulties were also important reasons why most people opposed the recapture of Xinjiang at the beginning.
However, Zuo Zongtang began to make detailed preparations for this war since 1872, and his strategy can be summarized as "slow advance and quick decision".
"Slow advance" means to be fully prepared and not to fight an unprepared battle. Zuo Zongtang's first move was surprising - disarmament. He ordered his troops: soldiers who did not want to participate in the Western Expedition would all be paid to go home; those who stayed must be elite soldiers. After screening, 60,000 elite soldiers were finally left. Zuo Zongtang did this after careful consideration, because the expedition to Xinjiang was far away, and the large number of troops not only consumed a huge amount of food, but also the quality of the soldiers was uneven, which could easily lead to a mutiny over time.
After being ready, it was "quick decision". This was a helpless move. At that time, the Qing treasury was empty, and Zuo Zongtang knew that once the army set out, it must be quick and decisive, otherwise the longer it was delayed, the more difficult it would be to continue. He calculated in detail the daily food and forage required by soldiers and horses, and then calculated the amount of materials needed by the entire army 80,000 people and horses (including logistics chores, etc.) for a year and a half. He also estimated the transportation cost and consumption of 100 catties of grain for 100 miles, and even compared which method of transportation was more cost-effective, such as donkey, camel, and vehicle transportation. After careful calculation, Zuo Zongtang estimated that all military expenses would require 8 million silver. To prevent unexpected expenses, he declared 10 million to the court.
The court was also facing financial difficulties at that time, but still issued an edict expressing support: "Zong Tang is a minister of the state. This western expedition is for national affairs. As long as the border areas are peaceful, the court can allocate 5 million yuan from the national treasury and order him to borrow 5 million yuan from foreign countries." Therefore, Zuo Zong Tang found "red-topped merchant" Hu Xueyan and borrowed money from the United Kingdom HSBC Bank in Shanghai. Although "borrowing to fight" was helpless, Zuo Zong Tang believed that compared with recovering lost territory, this was "choosing the lesser of two evils".
After solving the problem of food and salaries, Zuo Zongtang began to arm his 60,000 elite soldiers. In July 1875, the Russian government, which learned that the Qing government was preparing to use force against Xinjiang, sent a "scientific trade inspection team" to spy on the strength of the Qing army. In Lanzhou, they saw the strong strength of the Western Expedition Army led by Liu Jintang under Zuo Zongtang's command: the Qing army had a large number of the most advanced firearms in Europe and domestic imitations, such as the German Mauser rifle M1871 11mm breech-loading gun, the US-made "Remington I" rifle, and Liu Jintang's elite troops of more than 13,000 people had various rifles 20,000. Based on this, the captain of the inspection team judged that Agubai's failure was only a matter of time.The Battle to Recover Xinjiang: The Glorious Journey of the Just Army
In May 1876, after careful preparation, Zuo Zongtang's Western Expedition Army, consisting of 25 battalions of cavalry and infantry, entered Xinjiang in batches and headed to Balikun via Hami, officially launching the general attack on the Agubai forces in Xinjiang.
Aguba's army has a certain strength in Xinjiang, with many firearms, cavalry and infantry totaling about 40,000 people. However, the result of the battle is without suspense. Aguba's army collapsed at the first touch and suffered consecutive defeats. Among them, in addition to the strong combat effectiveness of Zuo Zongtang's Western Expedition Army, Aguba's loss of support in Xinjiang is also an important factor.
Agubai, as an outsider, had an unstable foundation in Xinjiang. He employed a large number of cronies, which caused dissatisfaction among local nobles. Although he had military ability, his governance ability was poor. He implemented heavy tax policies in Xinjiang, causing unbearable suffering for the people. Therefore, the local people were full of expectations for the Qing army, and there were many people who "looked east to the king's army". In addition, Zuo Zongtang ordered not to "kill and surrender", which led to many cases of the entire city opening its gates and surrendering to the Qing army during the war.
According to the "North before South" strategy formulated by Zuo Zongtang, from May 1876 to March 1877, the Qing army broke through the "Tianshan Defense Line" painstakingly managed by Agubai in just 10 months, recaptured the northern border, and aimed at the southern border. On the early morning of May 29, 1877, Agubai, who was in a desperate situation, died suddenly in Karashar (Yanqi County, Xinjiang). The "Qing History Draft" records that he committed suicide by drinking poisoned wine, but there are also other reports that he was poisoned to death. In early January 1878, the Qing army captured all the land in southern Xinjiang and successfully recaptured the entire territory. The United Kingdom commented that this was "the most glorious achievement of a Chinese-led military force since the Qianlong era more than a century ago."The Ili Issue: Difficult Negotiations and Strong Backing
However, there was still a key issue that had not been resolved at this time, which was the occupation of Ili by Tsarist Russia. In 1871, Agubai rebelled in Xinjiang, and Tsarist Russia took the opportunity to invade and occupy more than 200,000 square kilometers of land in Ili, claiming that "Ili will always be under Russian jurisdiction". At that time, Tsarist Russia had just experienced the Ninth Russo-Turkish War (also known as the "Crimean War"), and its vitality had not yet recovered. It felt a little guilty, so it informed the Qing Dynasty that the occupation of Ili was to "stabilize the border order", and as long as the Qing Dynasty could recover important towns in Xinjiang such as Urumqi, it would return Ili. However, in reality, Tsarist Russia did not believe that the Qing Dynasty had the ability to recover Xinjiang.
During the conquest of Agubai, someone suggested that Zuo Zongtang take the opportunity to recapture Ili, but Zuo Zongtang believed that "the army came without a name" and did not adopt it for the time being. However, he has always been concerned about Ili. In 1880, Zuo Zongtang wrote to the court, suggesting the establishment of a province in Xinjiang and proposing that the court send envoys to negotiate with Russia to return Ili. After the court agreed, it sent Chonghou as the plenipotentiary minister to negotiate with Russia.
Chonghou once served as the governor of Zhili, but lacked diplomatic ability. He signed the Treaty of Rivachia (also known as the Treaty of Delivery of Ili) in Russia in a confused manner. According to this treaty, the Qing Dynasty only obtained an isolated city of Ili, but lost a large amount of territory. They also had to pay more than 2 million taels of silver as compensation to Russia. Moreover, Chonghou signed and returned without reporting to the court. As soon as this treaty was announced, there was an uproar in the court. The famous minister Zhang Zhidong said, "If everything is as the New Testament, what we gain is the empty name of the word Ili, and what we lose is the reality of Xinjiang, which is thousands of miles away." Zuo Zongtang was even more angry, "I have only a barren suburb left in Ili, and the northern border is one or two hundred miles away from Russia. How can I survive?" In a fit of anger, the court arrested Chonghou and sentenced him to "beheading the prison guard", preparing to execute him after autumn.
Faced with this situation, Zuo Zongtang advocated for renegotiation and re-signing. Empress Dowager Cixi adopted his suggestion and sent Zeng Jize, the eldest son of Zeng Guofan, as a representative to negotiate with Russia again. However, it is not easy to make the cunning Russia change the signed treaty. Zuo Zongtang said in a memorial: "If the Tsar insists on going his own way, he should resort to force. Although I am not talented, I am willing to take this position."
In 1880, 68-year-old Zuo Zongtang led his army to the west again, claiming to have "40,000 imperial troops" and stationed troops in Hami to provide military support for Zeng Jize's negotiations. To show his determination, Zuo Zongtang ordered his coffin to be transported from Suzhou to Hami, which is the famous "coffin-carrying expedition".
On the one hand, Tsarist Russia quickly increased its troops in Ili and sent fleets to threaten Tianjin, Fengtian (now Liaoning), Shandong and other places. On the other hand, due to their previous understanding of the strength of Zuo Zongtang's army, they did not dare to underestimate it. Intelligence collected through various channels showed that Zuo Zongtang's army was not to be underestimated. After watching the exercise of Zuo Zongtang's army in Hami, Xinjiang, German technician Fokker commented: "If the Qing army fights against Russia in Ili, they will definitely win a complete victory." At that time, Russia had just ended the 10th "Russo-Turkish War" and had not yet recovered. After weighing the options, they decided to make concessions.
On February 24th, 1881, Zeng Jize signed the Sino-Russian Treaty of Ili with Russian representatives. Although it was still an unequal treaty (Russia almost returned the entire territory of Ili, but still ceded some territory, and the indemnity increased to 5 million taels), it was a great improvement compared to the previous treaties. Zeng Jize played an indispensable role in this process, and Zuo Zongtang's tough attitude of carrying the coffin and going to war also played a key role.
In 1884, under the repeated urging of Zuo Zongtang, the Qing Dynasty officially established "Xinjiang Province". One year later, Zuo Zongtang passed away, but his achievements in recapturing Xinjiang for China will be recorded in history and become an immortal monument in the history of the Chinese nation.Viewpoint
Among several famous officials in the late Qing Dynasty, Zuo Zongtang was a very distinctive figure. He was honest throughout his life. When someone reported that he had a close relationship with Hu Xueyan and must have engaged in corruption and bribery, Empress Dowager Cixi sent someone to investigate and found that Zuo Zongtang was innocent. Empress Dowager Cixi was overjoyed and issued a decree that "Zuo Zongtang is not allowed to participate for thirty years". After Zuo Zongtang's death, the money left to his family was only 20,000 more than two taels of silver, which was roughly equivalent to his annual salary. Moreover, he repeatedly educated his children to be honest, and most of them did not enter politics afterwards. Many of them became famous medical experts.
Zuo Zongtang was not only honest, but also ambitious and eager to achieve earth-shattering achievements. At the age of 60, he carried a coffin and went to war, showing his firm belief and fearless courage. Some people once imagined that Zuo Zongtang would replace Li Hongzhang and change the pattern of the late Qing Dynasty, but this may not be realistic. Zuo Zongtang had a straightforward personality, nicknamed "Zuo Mule", a stubborn temper, and often did not give people a good face (even in his later years, he still criticized Zeng Guofan). It was difficult for him to be as experienced as Li Hongzhang in the complex political situation and sit in a high position. Moreover, in the difficult situation of internal and external troubles in China at that time, Li Hongzhang could not be blamed for everything. If Zuo Zongtang were in his position, he might not have been able to do better than Li Hongzhang, except for being more tough in some affairs.