Page numbers denote the first time these concepts or names are mentioned in the book.
P. 7 COUNTING RODS
Counting rods are portable collections of small sticks of similar sizes that were used for calculating numbers in ancient China. They can be made of wood, bamboo, bone, ivory, jade or metal. The earliest known set was discovered in a tomb dating back to the Warring States period (fifth century B.C–221 B.C.), meaning that this calculation system has been in use for more than two thousand years. This computation tool was eventually replaced by the abacus. A variation of the rods' arrangement, called Suzhou numerals, is still occasionally being used today to record numbers in more traditional settings and can sometimes be seen in wet markets in Hong Kong.
P. 8 THE HEAVEN UNKNOWN TECHNIQUE
In modern mathematical terms, it presents an exploration to solve multivariable equations of higher degrees. Heaven, Earth, Man and Matter in historical Chinese computational canons are the equivalent of x, y, z and w in algebra.
Li Ye (1192–1279) was one of the first mathematicians to write and publish a methodical discourse on this Chinese system of algebra for multivariable equations. The earliest known record of this technique can be dated back to the Northern Song (960–1127), and the nineteen unknowns quoted by Lotus Huang were cited by Li Ye in his writings from a now-lost treatise he had come across.
P. 9 NINE HALLS DIAGRAM / SCRIPT OF RIVER LUO
Often rendered as Lo Shu or Luo Shu in English, the Script of River Luo is a diagram passed down from ancient times to explain the changes, connections and interactions between the heavens, the earth and all that lies within, from which the Eight Trigrams were believed to be derived. In the myths, a divine turtle appeared in the Luo River when the legendary Emperor Yu the Great was fortifying its flood defenses. On its shell were markings in nine groups, each with a different number of dots. From studying their distribution and arrangement, Yu derived nine strategies for governing and managing the world. The Script of River Luo is a cornerstone of Chinese mathematics and divination, including geomancy, or feng shui. In numerical terms, it can be represented by an associative magic square of three by three, in which the sum of any line, whether vertical, horizontal or diagonal, is always fifteen. This configuration is also referred to as a Nine Halls Diagram.
P. 22 WATER, FIRE, WOOD, METAL, EARTH, RAHU AND KETU
The stars Water, Fire, etc. are the planets Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn respectively, while Rahu and Ketu are referred to as shadow planets, the former being the ascending lunar node and the latter the descending lunar node in Vedic astrology. Rather than being physical entities in space, Rahu and Ketu are the points of intersection between the paths of the sun and the moon as they move on the celestial sphere.
P. 22 THE PROBLEM OF DISTRIBUTING SILVER, ETC.
In modern mathematical terms, this question relates to the study of higher order arithmetic series—adding infinitely to a given starting quantity—which is a major field of calculus. This problem and its solution were first published in 1303, in a book called Siyuan yujian, or Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns, by the Yuan dynasty mathematician Zhu Shijie (1249–1314), one of the most important figures in the history of mathematics.
P. 22 THE PROBLEM OF THE GHOST VALLEY SAGE
The mathematical questions and concepts mentioned in this chapter were worked on and developed by Chinese scholars roughly contemporary to the setting of the story. This example is an exploration of number theory in pure mathematics, an area in which Song dynasty mathematicians attained an in-depth knowledge, and is now commonly known as the Chinese remainder theorem.
P. 27 TIANBAO ERA / EMPEROR XUANZONG OF TANG / NOBLE CONSORT YANG / LI LINFU / YANG GUOZHONG
The Tianbao era refers to the years 741 to 756, the third and final regnal period of Emperor Xuanzong (685–762), the seventh ruler of the Tang dynasty (618–907). He was on the throne for forty-three years, from 713 to 756, and the first three decades of his reign were considered to be the dynasty's golden age, as well as a high point in Chinese history. In his latter years in power, however, he became reliant on self-serving officials, notably Chancellor Li Linfu, allowing them to run the country while he preferred to enjoy the company of Noble Consort Yang. His affection for Yang also resulted in her relations gaining power at court.
Though his neglect of state affairs culminated in the An Lushan Rebellion (755–763), leading to his abdication and Noble Consort Yang's death, and to seven years of domestic warfare that blighted the reigns of two further Emperors and weakened the dynasty, Xuanzong's doomed devotion to Noble Consort Yang was immortalized in various classics of Chinese literature that have subsequently inspired many stage and screen adaptations. In the popular imagination, he is better known as Emperor Ming of Tang.
Noble Consort Yang (719–756), whose full name was Yang Yuhuan, was one of the four beauties of ancient China. Her cousin Yang Guozhong (died 756) utilized his connection to her to improve his position in court, and eventually brought down and supplanted his one-time collaborator, Chancellor Li Linfu. He was blamed, together with Noble Consort Yang, for causing the An Lushan Rebellion, which resulted in the Emperor fleeing the capital. Yang Guozhong was killed by soldiers of the Imperial Guard, while Emperor Xuanzong was forced into ordering Noble Consort Yang to be strangled.
Li Linfu (683–753), whom Yang Guozhong succeeded, was Chancellor for eighteen years, from 734 to 752. It is believed that he maintained power by flattering the Emperor and blocking potential challengers from reaching positions of influence.
P. 27 DALI KINGDOM / NANZHAO / GELUOFENG
Situated in the region of Yunnan today, the Dali Kingdom (937–1253) was an independent state that existed around the same time as the Song Empire (960–1279). Their kings declared obedience to the Song and acted as military commissioners for their more powerful neighbor.
Nanzhao was the self-governing state in the same area preceding the establishment of the Dali Kingdom, and the height of its influence came during the eighth and ninth centuries.
Geluofeng (712–779, reigned 748–779) was the fifth king of Nanzhao. Like his forebears, he accepted the dominance of the Tang Empire, but, a few years after he ascended the throne, he gave his support to the Tubo Kingdom in their struggle against the Tang. Later, with the Tang in the grip of internal turmoil during the An Lushan Rebellion, Geluofeng enlarged the Nanzhao state, annexing parts of modern-day Sichuan and Guizhou. When the situation in the Tang Empire stabilized, however, he declared that Nanzhao would always be a friend of the Tang.
P. 27 TUBO KINGDOM
Tubo was a Tibetan kingdom that prospered during the seventh and ninth centuries, with economic and diplomatic ties to the dynasties that ruled over the territories covering both China and India today. It was often engaged in conflicts with the Tang Empire, and, by the middle of the eighth century, it was one of the largest empires in Asia, reaching beyond the Tibetan Plateau to encompass areas of modern-day Qinghai, Xinjiang, Sichuan and Yunnan.
P. 28 GOATS ON THE HILL
As touched upon throughout the story and in the notes of Volume I, A Hero Born, there is a specific genre of poetry in Chinese literature known as ci, or lyric poetry. These verses are written to fit a specific tune or melody, like song lyrics, and they follow strict rules that specify not only the length of each line and the rhyme scheme, but also the tone pitch of each character within the line. The tunes are now mostly lost, with only their titles known to us, though it is occasionally possible to reconstruct some semblance of the underlying harmony through the sonic quality of the words. "Goats on the Hill" is one such tune title, and many poets have set lyrics to variations of this melody over the centuries.
The author noted that, in the early summer of 2000, when he traveled to Lijiang in Yunnan and attended a concert of music from the Tang and Song dynasties, one of the songs performed was "Goats on the Hill," with the words "Mountains huddled, / Torrents bubbled…" as sung by the logger in this volume. He wrote that, although he knew the poem was believed to have been written by the Yuan dynasty writer Zhang Yanghao (1270–1329)—who was born decades after our tale's setting—he decided to include it anyway, allowing himself a minor anachronism for the sake of the story. When revising the novel for the final time, he added his reimagination of how some of the songs could have been passed down in the Dali Kingdom, inspired by his visit to Yunnan.
P. 56 CAPPED MEN
According to Confucian tradition, when men came of age at twenty, they would go through a capping ceremony at which they would acquire a courtesy name, officially entering adulthood.
P. 65 TRIRATNA
Sanskrit for the Three Jewels or Three Treasures of Buddhism—the Buddha, the one who has attained full enlightenment; the dharma, the teachings of the Buddha; and the sangha, the monastic community practicing the dharma.
P. 70 SEMI-PROCESSED JADE PLAQUE XUAN PAPER
Soft, with a fine texture, but robust all the same, Xuan paper has been used for painting and calligraphy for more than a thousand years, and is still made by hand today, following traditional techniques. Although it is sometimes called rice paper in English, and often includes some proportion of rice straw in its composition, the unique ingredient that gives it the desirable qualities of being resistant to creasing, moths and mold is the bark of the blue sandalwood tree. It is named after Xuanzhou, the area from which it was sold.
Xuan paper is usually categorized into three main types, according to the different ratios of key ingredients and to the processes it is subjected to: the raw paper has the highest water absorbency and is most suitable for expressive inkwash; the ripe paper takes the least water and is used for gongbi-style painting, with its fine and detailed brushstrokes; and the half-ripe or semi-processed paper is a happy medium between the two. Jade plaque is a type of half-ripe paper, named for its white and smooth appearance.
P. 70 KUMARAJIVA OF THE KINGDOM OF KUCHA
The monk Kumarajiva (344–413) was one of the most important translators of Buddhist texts from Sanskrit into Chinese. His translations stand out thanks to their smooth flow and the clarity with which they convey complex meanings. To this day, his versions are recited and studied not only by believers, but also by scholars of Buddhism, literature and translation. It is not uncommon to hear his turns of phrase from the Diamond Sutra or the Lotus Sutra quoted offhand in modern everyday situations, so embedded in the Chinese culture and language are his works.
P. 96 MUTTON-FAT WHITE JADE FROM KHOTAN
Khotan, in the southwestern region of modern-day Xinjiang, has been an important source of nephrite jade throughout the history of China. The highest-quality stones come from the rivers originating in the Kunlun Mountains, though few outstanding pebbles or boulders can be found today. The most precious light-colored variety is known as mutton-fat white jade because of its resemblance to its namesake.
P. 117 APSARAS / DEVAS / YAKSAS
Apsaras are celestial singers, musicians and dancers; devas are a class of beings who live longer than humans and have deific powers; yaksas are spirits related to nature, which are usually benevolent, but can also be mischievous. These divine beings are common to both Hinduism and Buddhism.
P. 123 DUAN ZHIXING
A real historical figure, Duan Zhixing (1149–1200) ruled the Dali Kingdom from 1172 until his death in 1200. Although his father, Duan Zhengxing (posthumous title: Zhengkang), did abdicate to become a monk, the tale of Duan Zhixing being reborn as Reverend Sole Light is a fictional invention.
P.144 A CURIOUS FORM OF SANSKRIT INFLECTED BY THE CHINESE LANGUAGE
The incomprehensible passage at the end of the Nine Yin Manual, which also appeared in volumes II and III, was inspired by a book called Mongol-un nigucha tobchiyan, or The Secret History of the Mongols. It was believed to have been completed by 1240, written either in the Mongolian script then transliterated phonetically into Chinese characters, or directly in Chinese characters to emulate the sounds of the Mongolian language. It tells the life story of Genghis Khan, from his origins and childhood all the way to his death, and is one of the most important accounts in the Mongolian language of the founding of the Mongol Empire.
This book exists in two versions: in its "phonetic" form and as a translation in Chinese prose. It was the "phonetic" text, in which Chinese readers without knowledge of Mongolian will simply find a jumble of random characters they recognize but cannot make sense of, that inspired the invented language of the Nine Yin Manual.
The collection of characters that make up the final "Sanskrit" passage of the Nine Yin Manual are in fact entirely made up by the author, though similar combinations are seen in Chinese transliteration of Buddhist chants, which are recorded in Sanskrit. The lines that appear in this English translation are based on Mandarin pronunciations of the Chinese characters, which are then converted into spellings that recall the form of romanized Sanskrit, while maintaining some semblance of what the made-up text sounds like in Chinese.
P. 162 BIANLIANG
Bianliang, which also appears as Daliang in this volume, is the city now known as Kaifeng. It was the capital of the Song Empire between 960 and 1127, until the Jurchen invasion forced the Imperial Court to relocate south to Lin'an. It was one of the largest cities in the world in the eleventh century, with a population of at least half a million residents, and, by some estimates, twice that number. The five-meter long scroll painting by Zhang Zeduan (1085–1145), "Along the River During the Qingming Festival," depicts its vibrant street life, and many of its details are corroborated by surviving contemporary accounts. Marco Polo also wrote about this metropolis when he visited China in the late thirteenth century.
P. 213 LYCHEE PORK KIDNEY, ETC.
Some of the delicacies mentioned by Count Seven Hong are from Wulin jiushi, or Old Affairs of Wulin by Zhou Mi (1232–98). They were served to Emperor Gaozong of Song at a banquet at the home of General Zhang Jun, in 1151.
Old Affairs of Wulin, completed in around 1290, after the establishment of the Yuan dynasty, records all aspects of urban life in Lin'an during the Southern Song era, as experienced by the common people as well as by those at court, offering great insight into the customs of the day, especially those related to entertainment and performance. Wulin here refers to the hills around West Lake, and was used as an alternative name for Lin'an, which is known today as Hangzhou.
P.233 CHANCELLOR LIN XIANGRU / GENERAL LIAN PO
Chancellor Lin Xiangru and General Lian Po served the state of Zhao in the third century B.C., during the Warring States period (fifth century B.C.–221 B.C.)
Lin Xiangru was initially a retainer of the palace enunch Miao Xian, but his eloquence twice spared Zhao humiliation at the hands of the more powerful and aggressive Qin state, and he was promoted by the King of Zhao to the highest position in court, rising above General Lian Po.
Offended that a low-born man who had never risked his life for his country on the battlefield was so honored, the General made it known that he would insult Lin should they meet. In order to avoid a confrontation, Lin feigned illness to stay away from court, and, whenever he saw General Lian on the street, he would ask his entourage to take his palanquin by another route.
Lin's followers were ashamed to see the man they admired bow to General Lian's threats, assuming that he feared the military man, but Lin explained that he was placing the country's survival before his personal honor, for the only reason the Qin had not sent troops to Zhao was that they were wary of both him and General Lian. If the two of them were engaged in petty wrangling against each other, they would leave their state vulnerable. When Lin's words reached the General's ears, he hurried to Lin's mansion carrying sharp brambles on his unclothed back to beg for punishment and forgiveness. The two men became friends for life.
P. 303 GENERAL WANG YANZHANG
Wang Yanzhang (863–923) was a famous general of the Later Liang state (907–23), known for his prowess on the field and his loyalty to his country. He was captured by Later Tang (923–37) forces and subsequently beheaded when he refused to defect.
Later Liang was one of the states of the turbulent Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–79) that preceded the founding of the Song dynasty.
P. 314 LITTLE ISLAND OF FLEABANE AND GOOSEFOOT
The Island of Fleabane and Goosefoot, or Penglai in Mandarin transliteration, is one of the five mythical mountains in the Eastern Sea, home to celestial immortals. The Little Island of Fleabane and Goosefoot of Xincheng Town was once a part of Nengren Temple (founded in 503), and is now a park open to the public in modern-day Jiaxing.
P. 330 BIAN ZHUANGZI SLAYED THE WAR-WEARIED TIGERS
Bian Zhuangzi was an official of the state of Lu (1043–249 B.C.), known for his courage. He once came upon two tigers feeding on an ox carcass and unsheathed his blade, ready to claim them. However, he was stopped and told to wait, for the tigers would likely fight each other over the food before long. Bian followed the advice and held back until one tiger had killed the other, then entered the fray and slayed the surviving but injured animal with ease, becoming known as the man who took on two tigers. This story was recorded in the Record of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian, and became a metaphor for taking action strategically at the right moment for optimal results.
P. 352 TONG PASS
With the Yellow River to its north and the Qin Mountains to its south, Tong Pass is one of the most important military strongholds in the history of China. Its unique geographical position allowed it to defend Chang'an (modern-day Xi'an) from attacks coming from the east. If they could breach it, armies coming from the west could capture the key cities of the plains of northern China—from Luoyang and Kaifeng all the way to Beijing—with relative ease. However, as long as the soldiers garrisoned there did not sally out to engage the enemy, it was nigh on impregnable, and it was said that two soldiers behind its walls could hold back a company of a hundred.
P. 360 KHWARAZM
Khwarazm, also known as Chorasmia, lies in the territories of modern Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. Its Shahs ruled over Central Asia and Iran between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries, until the Mongolians conquered the Khwarazmian Empire. Situated at the crossroads of the caravan routes along the Silk Road, the region was vital to trade between the Asian and European continents.
P. 360 ALA AD-DIN MUHAMMAD
The real historical figure Muhammad II of Khwarazm, who reigned from 1200 to 1220, was the penultimate Shah of the Khwarazmian Empire. His rejection of Genghis Khan's attempt to establish trade relations—by arresting the first envoy for spying and executing the second—is believed by historians to have been a cause of the brutal invasion by the Mongolians.
P. 366 THE HEAVENS LOOK ASKANCE, ETC.
The real historical figure Qiu Chuji's journey to the west at the invitation of Genghis Khan is well documented. His disciple Li Zhichang wrote a detailed diary of the trip, which took place between 1220 and 1223, named Changchun zhenren xiyouji, or The Travels of Immortal Eternal Spring to the West. The text survives to this day, and it is a valuable account of Central Asia at the time, describing its geography, the lives of ordinary people and conditions for travelers. It also sheds light on the Mongolian administration and offers a candid portrait of Genghis Khan.
The letter quoted here is the actual message the conqueror sent the Taoist monk, written on the first day of the fifth lunar moon of the year 1219, which is May 12 in today's calendar.
P. 401 SAMARKAND
Situated in modern Uzbekistan, Samarkand—also spelled as Samarqand—is one of the oldest cities of Central Asia with great commercial importance, lying at the junction of trade routes from China and India. It was destroyed by Genghis Khan in 1220.
P. 402 CLOUD LADDERS
Hinged folding ladders used for scaling city walls. They were a common siege weapon in medieval China, and some designs included a compartment at the base to provide soldiers with shelter from projectiles hurled from the walls as they approached.
P. 432 A DECADE PLAGUED BY WAR, ETC.
The verses on these pages are original poems written by the real historical figure Qiu Chuji.
P. 489 FIVE CLASSICS OF THE CONFUCIAN CANON
The Five Classics are: the Book of Songs, a collection of verses meant to be sung; the Book of Documents, a collection of speeches and other texts by rulers and important ministers; the I'Ching or Book of Changes, a system of divination; the Book of Rites, descriptions of social forms and ritual matters; and Spring and Autumn Annals, a chronicle of the state of Lu between 722 B.C. and 479 B.C. Most of these texts were written before Confucius's lifetime (551–479 B.C.), and the versions that survive today were mostly compiled—or even composed—during the Han period (206 B.C.–220 A.D.), when Confucianism became the official state philosophy.
P. 491 A GAME OF GO
Also called weiqi, this Chinese board game for two players is set on a grid of nineteen by nineteen lines. Each side has one hundred and eighty pieces in the shape of flat round pebbles, which are called stones, one set black, the other white. Crudely speaking, the aim is to remove the opponent's stones by encircling them. It is a game of strategy and patience, and one is often required to sacrifice one's own stones in order to come out on top at the end. It is regarded as a way to cultivate wisdom, rather than a simple pastime, and is one of the four arts—together with calligraphy, painting and the playing of the qin zither—that should be mastered by a literati or by anyone who wishes to be considered learned.
P. 560 LI QUAN / YANG MIAOZHEN
Li Quan (1190–1231) was a rebel leader who joined the anti-Jin resistance army founded by Yang An'er, the elder brother of his wife, Yang Miaozhen. All three are real figures from history.
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THE RETURN OF THE CONDOR HEROES
CHINA, 1237 A.D.
Genghis Khan is dead. The Mongolians, led by the conqueror's third son, Ogedai, have vanquished the Jurchen Jin Empire, and now turn their armies on their ally the Great Song Empire. A dozen years have passed since the second Contest of Mount Hua.
A new generation of martial artists are vying for recognition in the jianghu, but as the fall of their country looms closer, the making of a hero depends on more than mere kung fu skills.
A chance meeting with his father's sworn brother Guo Jing lifts Penance Yang from a life of vagrancy and initiates him into the martial world to which his parents Yang Kang and Mercy Mu once belonged.
Placed under the care of the Quanzhen Sect at their base in the Zhongnan Mountains, Penance stumbles across the mysterious history behind the founding of this most respected martial school and embarks on a journey during that forces him to come to terms with his family's past as well as secrets of his own heart.