The Key Principles of Different Political Systems
Democracy
Abraham Lincoln, former President of the United States of America, famously defined democracy in the following terms:
"Democracy is a government of the people, by the people, and for the people."
According to American political scientist Larry Diamond, democracy consists of four key elements:
A political system for choosing and replacing the government through free and fair elections The active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and civic life Protection of the human rights of all citizens A rule of law, in which the laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens.
Within the UK these four elements can be clearly identified. On a regular basis we have free and fair elections both on a national and local level where all those aged 18 years and over have a chance to exercise their democratic right in the voting process (a topic we will be exploring later in detail).
In unit 1 you studied different aspects of active citizenship and agreed that it was important for us all to engage with the political process to encourage community cohesion. We also agreed that all citizens should respect human and legal rights.
Finally, being British is about respecting British values in all walks of life and respecting the fact that we are all equal and no one is above the law.
Republic
The key principles of republicanism are very similar to those of a democracy in that the real political power lies with the people and not individuals. In a republic the head of state is elected, as are the bodies that make the law. All individuals who hold office can be removed by the people in an election. This can be summarised in three ways:
The power of government is held by the people The people give power to leaders they elect to represent them and serve their interests The representatives are responsible for helping all the people in the country, not just a few people.
Monarchy
Monarchy can be defined as
'a political system based upon the undivided sovereignty or rule of a single person. The term applies to states in which supreme authority is vested in the monarch, an individual ruler who functions as the head of state and who achieves his or her position through heredity.' monarchy | Definition, Examples, & Facts.
On the face of it this means that the monarch has absolute power to govern how they wish, and in some countries, especially small ones, that is the case.
However, in the UK, although the monarch is an integral part of the central government and has to sign off each law that is made (this is known as Royal Assent), power lies with the government elected by the people and the monarch today is more of a figure head and does not hold real power.
Communism
Communism is a political system based on the socialist ideas of Marx and Lenin, two revolutionaries who developed the theory that all people are equal and that the state should control everything for the benefit of all. In other words, no one person or group of people, such as the aristocracy or people with means, should be advantaged because of their position.
Instead of private companies owning bodies such as the railways and banks, everything would come under the control of the state. Private property and ownership cease to exist.
Research these four political systems and then write an essay of at least 500 words explaining which of the four systems you prefer and why. Explore the advantages and disadvantages of each one.
Separation of Powers
The workings of government at a national level is a very complex process and can be best summed up with the following saying:
'With great power comes great responsibility.'
Each government will implement legislation (make laws) that can affect us all. They could increase taxes which would mean we have less money; they can change laws which could limit our freedom or they could even declare war sending us to fight in other countries. In other words, they have a great deal of power.
It is therefore important that this power is not held by one individual or body and that is one reason why the government consists of three institutions, each separate from the other and each with the power to challenge a decision made by either body. This is called separation of powers and is a fundamental cornerstone of any democratic government.
In order for a democratic government to function properly, it is essential to have separation of powers. This means that the power is distributed to separate branches within the government. Generally these branches are: executive, legislative and judicial.
This image clearly shows the principle of separation of powers in action. The executive government, parliament and the judiciary (courts) are linked but separate.
executive – government, the Prime Minister, the Cabinet and other ministers (to develop policies and propose legislation)
legislature – Parliament, members of the House of Commons and House of Lords (to debate proposed legislation and enact laws)
judiciary – judges (interpret and apply legislation in line with the intention of Parliament as well as developing common law).
So how does this work in action? Click on the link and find out more: Separation of Powers
During the Brexit process, Boris Johnson, the Prime Minister, met the Queen and advised her to prorogue Parliament to avoid members of the House of Commons debating the issues and challenging decisions made by the government. This potentially could mean that the executive was preventing the legislature from checking that the process was being carried out correctly.
This decision was challenged by a prominent remain campaigner, Gina Miller, in the Supreme Court, her argument being that Boris was abusing his position and was trying to bypass the system to achieve his aims and objectives.
The Supreme Court, the highest court in the UK, ruled in favour of Gina Miller stating that Boris was wrong and that Parliament should be recalled and allowed to carry out its role of scrutinising the executive.
Separation of Powers: The Detail
The doctrine of the separation of powers requires that the principal institutions of state—executive, legislature and judiciary—should be clearly divided in order to safeguard citizens' liberties and guard against tyranny. Separation of powers is the cornerstone of our democracy and constitution and ensures that no one person or group of people can exercise absolute power without any checks or challenges in place.
No one person should be part of more than one branch of government.
Each branch of government should have their own role and not mix and match.
Each branch of government should check and if necessary challenge the other branches.
The Executive
The executive, more commonly known as the Cabinet, is the main body that controls policy and coordinates activities of governmental departments. It is chaired by the Prime Minister and consists of most of the ministerial heads of departments.
Three main roles:
Direct government policy
Make decisions about national issues
Propose new laws
The Legislature
The United Kingdom Parliament is made up of three parts - the Crown, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Parliament's main functions are to conduct debates, to make and change legislation (laws) and to check the work of government.
The Judiciary
The judicial function determines the outcome of disputes and performs minor legislative and administrative functions. It oversees both public and private law through civil and criminal courts and a variety of tribunals.
The Process of Legislation (How laws are made in the UK)
Let's look at the different ways in which laws can be made:
Acts of Parliament
Delegated Legislation
Statutory Interpretation
Judicial Precedent
Act of Parliament
An Act of Parliament creates a new law or changes an existing law. An Act is a Bill that has been approved by both the House of Commons and the House of Lords and been given Royal Assent by the monarch. Taken together, Acts of Parliament make up what is known as Statute Law in the UK.
During a Bill's process through Parliament it goes through many stages in both The House of Commons and The House of Lords, where it is scrutinised and checked at many different stages and potentially amended to make it fit for purpose. Once a Bill has been approved by both the Commons and the Lords it is sent to the monarch to receive Royal Assent.
Look at the diagram below to see the details:
Delegated Legislation
In The UK many of our laws are made in Parliament. However sometimes that might not be the most appropriate thing to do. Parliament might not have the expertise, resources or time to keep society running smoothly. For example, during the Covid pandemic, laws had to be changed on a daily basis over a number of months to keep us all safe.
That means Parliament had to delegate the authority to other bodies to carry out this function.
Delegated Legislation
In The UK many of our laws are made in Parliament. However sometimes that might not be the most appropriate thing to do. Parliament might not have the expertise, resources or time to keep society running smoothly. For example, during the Covid pandemic, laws had to be changed on a daily basis over a number of months to keep us all safe.
That means Parliament had to delegate the authority to other bodies to carry out this function.
What does the word delegate mean?
Statutory Interpretation
A simple definition of Statutory Interpretation is:
Where the wordings of the statute (law) are not clear or are uncertain, then the courts will be called upon to interpret the meaning.
Even though laws are scrutinised in detail there are occasions when the judiciary will be called upon to decide exactly what the law means. This happens in cases where:
The meaning of the law is uncertain A lawyer has discovered a loophole A word could have more than one meaning e.g. stamp, patient A drafting or printing error has occurred.
There are different rules of interpretation, all of which could be used by a judge when deciding upon the meaning of a law. Those rules are:
The literal rule The golden rule The mischief rule The purposive approach.
Today the judiciary tends to use the mischief rule and purposive approach as these rules allow the judge to look at what the purpose of the law being introduced in the first place.
Judicial Precedent
Judicial precedent basically means judge made law.
The doctrine of judicial precedent is founded on the principle of 'stare decisis', meaning to stand by the decision. Essentially it refers to the idea that once a court makes a decision, both they and other courts beneath them are bound by that decision.
The main advantage of using precedent is that it provides certainty in the law. As cases with sufficiently similar material facts are bound by past decisions, it provides an idea of how the case will be decided. Another advantage is that it provides consistent decisions within the law, which also ensures fairness.
For example, a court may make a decision on a set of facts that have never been tested and as a result of the decision made a future case with similar facts will be judged in the same way. If the Supreme Court makes a decision which becomes precedent all courts lower than the Supreme Court have to abide by the decision made.
How is Government Structured in the UK?
As we move on in our journey we now need to explore the different levels of government in the UK.
In essence there are three main levels of government that impact our lives on different levels.
They are:
Central government Regional government Local government
As part of each level we will need to explore the roles and responsibilities of the civil service which support the elected officials and representatives.
Central Government
The roles and responsibilities of the central government are concerned with issues that affect the country as a whole. For example, taxation policy in relation to taxes like income tax; the maintenance of defence capabilities to allow the government to protect its citizens from enemies at home and abroad; participation in international treaties and agreements and to ensure the integrity and governance of the whole of the United Kingdom.
The central government of the UK is based at the Palace of Westminster in London. It contains the major central political institutions of the UK: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Together with the ruling monarch these institutions are known as Parliament.
The Monarch
Monarchy is the oldest form of government in the United Kingdom. In a monarchy, a king or queen is head of state. The British monarchy is known as a constitutional monarchy. This means that while the sovereign is head of state, the ability to make and pass legislation resides with an elected parliament.
The current reigning monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who will retain her title until she dies, at which point the crown will be passed onto the next in line of succession: Prince Charles and then Prince William. This means that only people born into the Royal Family can ever become King or Queen.
Role and Function of The Monarch
The monarch has many roles and responsibilities. Queen Elizabeth II has been on the throne since 1952. This means that she has a wealth of experience in national and international matters. However most of her duties are ceremonial and she acts on the advice of the government of the day.
Head of State
The British monarchy is known as a constitutional monarchy. This means that, while the sovereign is head of state, the ability to make and pass legislation resides with an elected parliament.
Opening/ Closing of Parliament
The monarch is responsible for officially opening and dissolving (closing) Parliament. Each session of Parliament is opened at a ceremony called the state opening of Parliament where the monarch will deliver a speech setting out the government's agenda for the upcoming session. The monarch will also dissolve Parliament on the advice of the Prime Minister before a general election.
Appoints the Prime Minister
After a general election the party with the most seats will form the next government and the leader of the winning political party will be invited by the monarch to become the next Prime Minister (PM).
The monarch will also hold private meetings each week with the PM to discuss affairs of state. The monarch will be informed of government business and although the monarch is politically neutral they will offer advice and air their own views and opinions.
Appoints Peers
The monarch is responsible for appointing peers to sit in the House of Lords, but again this will be on the advice and recommendation of the Prime Minister.
Head of the Commonwealth
The monarch is also Head of The Commonwealth. This is a political affiliation of 54 countries. The monarch is also head of state of 16 of these countries, e.g. Australia, Canada.
The House of Commons
The House of Commons consists of 650 elected members of parliament (MPs) who represent a broad spectrum of political parties. Each of the MPs represents a localised geographical area, called a constituency. All constituencies should have approximately the same population so that all votes are equally important. That means constituencies in densely populated cities have a much smaller area than rural constituencies, where the people are spread out.
Constituencies can change boundaries to become bigger or smaller or sometimes disappear altogether. There are two ways in which an individual can be elected to the House of Commons. The first is through a general election, which is when representatives from all 650 constituencies are elected simultaneously, and the second is via a by-election.
A by-election happens when the current representative of a constituency dies, retires or resigns and a new representative is needed for that constituency only. These can happen at any time. A general election happens every five years as determined by the Fixed Term Parliament Act 2011. A general election can be held within a five-year period if two thirds of the House of Commons agree to it, or a motion of no confidence is tabled and a new government cannot be formed within 14 days.
Representative known as an MP per Constituency.
650 Constituencies (geographical area)
Party with the most seats forms the government
Leader of winning party becomes PM
General election every 5 years (Fixed Term Parliament Act 2011)
By-election as and when
House of Commons: Roles and Responsibilities
Making laws
Nearly 50% of the work in the House of Commons involves making new laws. These laws can have an extremely wide impact on the country and uniformed protective services alike.
Controlling finance
The House of Commons controls the raising of finances through taxation and the selling of government assets. It must also give its approval to any plans the government has to spend money. It can also check up on the spending of government departments through the Public Accounts Committee.
Hold the government to account (scrutiny)
The House of Commons scrutinises the work of the government. The government must explain its policies to the House and be prepared to accept criticism and questioning. This ensures that all decisions have been examined by a variety of individuals before they are implemented.
Debate important issues
The House of Commons allows its members to engage in debate and discussion in relation to matters of national importance such as Brexit, as well as in relation to issues affecting individuals from a local area. For example, Andy Carter the MP for Warrington South recently raised a concern in relation to leasehold selling which specifically affected people living in Warrington.
Protecting the individual
The members of the House of Commons are often contacted by individuals with difficulties, or are petitioned on a variety of issues of importance to individuals or groups, such as road building, reducing taxes and changes to the law.
The Speaker of the House of Commons
The Speaker of the House of Commons chairs debates in the Commons chamber. The holder of this office is an MP who has been elected to be Speaker by other Members of Parliament. During debates they keep order and call MPs to speak. Although the Speaker is an MP and a member of a political party, their role requires them to be politically neutral once they take office. The current speaker is The Rt Hon Sir Lindsay Hoyle, Member of Parliament for the constituency of Chorley, Lancashire, who has held the office of Speaker of the House of Commons since 4 November 2019.
Parliamentary Privilege
Parliamentary privilege grants certain legal immunities for members of both Houses to allow them to perform their duties without interference from outside of the House. Parliamentary privilege includes:
freedom of speech the right of both Houses to regulate their own affairs.
Click on the link for an example of a MP using parliamentary privilege. Ryan Giggs named by MP as injunction footballer
The House of Lords
The House of Lords, which is sometimes known as the Upper House or Second Chamber, is a non-elected body of appointed representatives known as peers. It is independent from, and complements the work of, the elected House of Commons. The Lords share the task of making and shaping laws and checking and challenging the work of the government.
Unlike The House of Commons there is no fixed number of peers who can sit in the House of Lords. Currently around 760 peers are active and take part in the process of government. The House of Lords is an historical body which has been reformed through various Acts of Parliament to try and reflect modern day society. The House of Lords is the subject of much discussion and debate as all its members are appointed by the state or are entitled to their position through birth. No member of the House of Lords is elected by members of the public, and this could be argued as being undemocratic in a modern-day democracy.
The House of Lords is made up of three types of peers:
Types of Peers
Hereditary Peers
Life Peers
Spiritual Peers
These peers sit in the House of Lords by virtue of their birth, i.e. they inherited their title from their parents.
There are 810 hereditary peers in the UK but only 92 sit in the House of Lords and they are elected by the hereditary peers themselves.
These peers are appointed and hold the position for life. They are appointed on a party-political basis and an independent basis, usually as they are experts in a particular field. They are appointed by the monarch on the advice of The Prime Minister.
The Lords Spiritual of the United Kingdom are the 26 bishops of the established Church of England who serve in the House of Lords. They include the Archbishops of Canterbury and York.
House of Lords: Roles and Responsibilities
Making Laws
In Depth Consideration of Public Policy
Holding the Government to Account
Members spend more than half their time in the House considering bills (draft laws). All bills have to be considered by both Houses of Parliament before they can become law. During several stages, members examine each bill, line-by-line, before it becomes an Act of Parliament (actual law). Many of these bills affect our everyday lives, covering areas such as welfare, health and education.
Members use their extensive individual experience to investigate public policy. Much of this work is done in select committees - small groups appointed to consider specific policy areas. In the 2016-17 session, House of Lords select committees produced 41 reports on subjects including the Brexit process (with six Brexit reports in six days), the 'Great Repeal Bill' and delegated powers, children and the internet and autonomous vehicles. Many select committee meetings involve questioning expert witnesses working in the field which is the subject of the inquiry. These meetings are open to the public.
Members scrutinise the work of the government during question time and debates in the chamber, where government ministers must respond. In the 2016-17 session, members held the government to account with 7,380 oral and written questions and 154 debates on topical issues and public policy ranging from the role of libraries and independent bookshops to the impact of Brexit on the NHS and social care. The public is welcome to visit and sit in the galleries overlooking the chamber during business.
Over the course of the years there has been much debate on whether The House of Lords should be replaced by an elected chamber. Click on the link and then express your thoughts and opinions on the subject.
The Role of Prime Minister (PM)
The individual who is appointed to the office of PM is usually the leader of the political party with the highest number of representatives in the House of Commons. The role of PM is complex and difficult, involving a variety of administrative, bureaucratic and public duties such as:
allocation of duties to ministers appointment and dismissal of ministers appointment of chairs of national industries to give out honours setting agendas for government business control of information released to the government ministers, Parliament and the public.
The PM also plays a significant role on the international stage, meeting with other heads of state to discuss foreign and financial policies, which can have far reaching implications well past our own borders.
It is important to note that as a public servant the PM is answerable to the Queen, their own political party and the public. When appointing ministerial posts, they must take account of advice from senior advisors and ensure that individuals appointed are competent to do the job and do not create substantial political imbalance.
The increased concentration of the media on high profile politicians such as government ministers and the Prime Minister means that their activities are closely scrutinised and the majority of their choices are in the public domain. This means that PMs must balance their own conscience with the demands of the public, who often favour or disfavour issues based on biased media campaigns rather than a real analysis of the facts. Leaders must be aware of this and sometimes be prepared to take a political stance which is in opposition to the wishes of the public. Yet if a leader's views become too different from the views of the public, he or she will be voted out.
Most modern-day governments have introduced the role of Deputy Prime Minister, although this isn't an actual office.
The Role of The Cabinet
The Cabinet is the main body that controls policy and coordinates activities of governmental departments. It is chaired by the Prime Minister and consists of most of the ministerial heads of departments, as well as some additional members.
The Cabinet, which is also known as the Executive, is made up of around 22 individuals who are in charge of Departments of State and collectively they make important decisions which have an impact on our everyday lives. They meet on a regular basis to discuss and formulate policy. Each cabinet member is appointed by the PM, and although they are all equal, some Cabinet positions are considered to be the great offices of state.
Chancellor of the Exchequer
Foreign Secretary
Home Secretary
Secretary of State for Defence.
Each department of state is represented in the Cabinet by a Secretary of State and each Secretary of State will have MPs who are appointed as Ministers of State to take responsibility for one particular area of responsibility of that department. For example the Home Office is led by the Home Secretary who has overall responsibility for the Department, but there is a Minister of State responsible for policing and a Minister of State responsible for immigration. This ensures that no one person has an excessive workload and that the department runs effectively and smoothly.
Complete the table below identifying the work of each department, the uniformed protective service they are responsible for and the current Secretary of State for that department.
Department
Role
Uniformed Protective Service
Current Secretary of State
Ministry of Defence
Home Office
Ministry of Justice
Department for Communities and Local Government
Department of Health
The Civil Service
Although the Departments of State are led by politicians it must be always remembered that their time in charge is usually quite brief and they don't necessarily have any expertise in the department they are in charge of. After a general election if another party gets in power all the top jobs will be taken by new people.
This is one of the reasons why each department will also have civil servants to ensure the smooth operation of the department regardless of who is the Secretary of State.
Civil servants are employees of the Crown and not of the British Parliament. Civil servants also have some traditional and statutory responsibilities which to some extent protect them from being used for the political advantage of the party in power. Senior civil servants may be called to account in Parliament.
Civil servants also work in the Prime Minister's office to support the work of the current PM.
The scale, complexity and impact of the work civil servants do is unrivalled. The civil service employs 450,000 people across the country and overseas. Their work includes everything from advising ministers on policy, to delivering front line services to the public.
Devolved/Regional/Local Government
As we already know, the central government based in London has overall responsibility for all of the UK, which is made up of the countries of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.
However, there is an ever-growing call for local people to have a greater degree of control over local issues. This is clearly seen in the calls by the Scottish National Party (SNP) to hold another referendum to seek support from the Scottish people to become an independent country.
Campaigns like this are bound to have an impact on society in general, and in the provision of uniformed protective services throughout the UK. So let's continue our journey in exploring the different levels of government.
Devolution
The transfer or delegation of power to a lower level, especially by the central government to a local or regional administration.
All levels of government outside of the central government have some form of devolved power allowing them to legislate for issues that affect different areas throughout the UK and that apply to that particular area.
Regional Assemblies
There are three main institutions outside of Westminster that have responsibility for the governance of the residents of those areas and they are:
Scottish Parliament Welsh Assembly Northern Ireland Assembly
The Scottish Parliament
The Scottish Parliament is the devolved, unicameral (single body) legislature of Scotland. It is located in the Holyrood area of the capital city, Edinburgh. The Parliament is a democratically elected body comprising 129 members known as Members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs), and they are elected for five-year terms. The party with the majority of the seats at the time of writing is the Scottish National Party (SNP) and the current leader, who is known as the First Minister, is Nicola Sturgeon. Her role is similar to that of The Prime Minister.
In 1997 the Scottish people held a referendum and voted to take responsibility for more of their own affairs and in May 1999 the Scottish Parliament as we know it today came into existence.
Referendum is a vote on a single issue, for example the vote on whether we should leave or remain in the EU was a referendum. It is usually a yes or no choice.
In 2014 another referendum was held where the Scottish people were asked if they supported Scotland becoming an independent country outside the UK. The majority voted to remain part of the UK, but there are calls for another referendum to be held on the same question.
The Scottish Parliament has the power to make their own laws, rules and regulations on a range of issues and that was clearly seen during the Covid pandemic as they did things differently to England. The authority that the Scottish Parliament has is divided into devolved powers and reserved powers. For example, Scotland has its own legal system separate from the rest of the UK, and it has its own police force.
Visit the website in the link below, then complete the table listing the different types of devolved and reserved powers that apply to the Scottish Parliament.
Powers of the Scottish Parliament
Devolved Powers
Reserved Powers
Wales and Northern Ireland have their own assemblies and individually they are elected by the people living in those areas, and they have their own roles and responsibilities similar to those in Scotland. For example:
National Assembly for Wales:
Represent Wales and its people Make laws for Wales Agree Welsh taxes Hold the Welsh Government to account.
Northern Ireland Assembly:
Represent Northern Ireland and its people Make laws for Northern Ireland Scrutinise the executive committee.
Research the websites of the Welsh and Northern Irish Assemblies and complete the table below.
Research Topic
National Assembly for Wales
Senedd Cymru | Welsh Parliament
Northern Ireland Assembly
The Northern Ireland Assembly
Where does the assembly meet?
Who is the current First Minister?
List four examples of devolved powers applicable to each Assembly.
Learning Aim C: Funding and Accountability
We are now going to move onto the issues of funding and accountability and explore how all the services are funded and how they are held accountable to the public they serve. The two issues go hand in hand.
In order to start this topic complete the table below and list as many sources or ways in which the government obtains money in order to fund all the different types of public services.
Before we look at the ways in which the public services are funded, let's take some time to understand the structure of how money is collected and how it is spent.
Just like any household budget, the trick is to balance the books between the money coming into the house and the money going out in terms of paying for food, clothes, entertainment and essentials like gas and electricity. In an ideal world the money going out is less than the money coming in. However sometimes an unexpected expenditure occurs and we might have to borrow money to pay for the expense or cut back on another item which might not be so essential, such as a holiday or replacing the car.
It's exactly the same with government spending on the public services. The Treasury, led by The Chancellor of the Exchequer, is responsible for collecting the money in and then giving each government department a sum of money to allow them to pay for the public service they are responsible for. Sometimes there isn't enough money to go around so they have to make cutbacks, such as staff cuts or not replacing old equipment. This can be an issue in times of extra pressure on the finances due to issues like Covid.
Sometimes the government has to deliberately reduce spending to balance the books and try and reduce borrowing. This policy is called austerity, and this is exactly the same as a household reducing spending in order to pay off borrowing such as credit card debt.
Click on the link below to research austerity, then in your own words explain what austerity is and explain how this policy can affect the public services and the communities they serve.
Austerity
Sources of Funding
All public services are funded mainly through money raised by central and local governments through direct and indirect taxation.
Central Government Direct Taxation
These are largely taxes on income or wealth. Income tax, corporation tax, property tax, inheritance tax and gift tax are examples of direct tax.
Central Government Indirect Taxation
Some examples of indirect taxes are sales tax, excise duty, VAT, service tax, entertainment tax, custom duty.
Local Government
Council tax is the local tax which helps councils pay for the services they provide. We use the money collected for council tax to maintain roads and street lighting, for services such as street cleaning and rubbish collection and for things like 'meals on wheels'. A portion of the tax is also used to help fund the police and fire services.
Interesting Facts
Police
Public spending on police services in the United Kingdom rose to £21.49 billion in 2020/21. Between 2009/10 and 2013/14 the amount of public money spent on the police fell from £19.3 billion to just £16.35 billion, due to the austerity policies followed by the UK government at the time.
Fire
The United Kingdom government spent approximately £3.13 billion on fire-protection services in 2020/21, the highest amount spent since 2010/11 when the government spent £3.02 billion.
Military
In 2020/21, the United Kingdom spent approximately £44.6 billion on defence, an increase of £2 billion from the previous year. Compared with 1996/97 when the UK spent approximately £22.1 billion on defence, there has been a net increase of £20.1 billion. When adjusted for inflation, defence spending in 2019/20 is £8.5 billion larger than it was in 1996/97.
NHS
Spending on the NHS in England. Total health spending in England was around £129 billion in 2018/19 and is expected to rise to nearly £134 billion by 2019/20, taking inflation into account. In 2018/19 around £115 billion was spent on the NHS England budget.
Other Sources of Funding
Some protective services are able to gain income from other sources, including:
Income and rents charged by public service organisations National Lottery Donations and legacies.
Impact of funding on public service delivery
One of the biggest issues facing public services today is how to serve the community with the service they expect whilst at the same time having to deal with a reduced budget to pay for a variety of resources which cost more and more.
You only need to see the figures in the above table to see how much money is spent on public services and when the books need to be balanced and cuts need to be made something has to give.
To help us understand this issue research two case studies to explore the following areas:
Impact on the public service itself Impact (potential/actual) on the communities they serve.
To finish this section on funding complete the two activities below to help you understand the issue of funding and how it can impact the public services and the communities they serve.
The issues you could explore and write about are:
Potential changes to, or effects on, the level, extent and quality of service provided Impact on service capability, including reduced or increased personnel/resources Impact on service personnel, including changes in salary/equipment Impact on communities, including changes in access to services.
Defence review: British army to be cut to 72,500 troops by 2025
Is the UK army getting too small as it makes way for drones and technology? | ITV News
England's fire services cut by £140m since 2016, new figures show
Fire service spending cuts risk lives, say firefighters
Accountability
What do you understand the term accountability to mean?
Accountability
Your understanding:
Dictionary definition:
All members of the protective/public services are employed by local or central government and their work is varied. Their work involves dealing with members of the public and as such it is important that the public have a degree of trust in the people who are serving them. Sometimes (as we will see in this section) protective/public service personnel get it wrong either deliberately or by accident, and in those cases procedures and organisations are in place to hold the individual and the organisation to account.
The table below gives examples of different organisations that hold the different protective services to account.
Police and Crime Commissioners
The role of the Police and Crime Commissioner (PCC) is to be the voice of the people and hold the police to account. They are responsible for the totality of policing. PCCs aim to cut crime and deliver an effective and efficient police service within their police force area. They are elected by constituents within that force area so are therefore answerable to the public for their actions and the actions of their police service.
HMIFRS
HMICFRS - Home
Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue Services (HMICFRS) independently assesses the effectiveness and efficiency of police forces and fire & rescue services – in the public interest.
Their role is to report on the efficiency and effectiveness of the police and fire services in order to encourage improvement and challenge poor performance.
IOPC
Who we are
The Independent Office for Police Conduct (IOPC) oversees the police complaints system in England and Wales. They investigate the most serious matters, including deaths following police contact, and set the standards by which the police should handle complaints. They use learning from our work to influence changes in policing.
They are independent, and make decisions entirely independently of the police and government.
CQC
Care Quality Commission (CQC)
The Care Quality Commission is responsible for ensuring standards are met in the social and health care systems throughout the UK. They are an independent regulator that is responsible for all areas of health care provision.
HMI Prisons
HMI Prisons - Home
Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Prisons (HMI Prisons) is an independent organisation that provides independent scrutiny of the conditions in which prisoners are detained and treated. All custodial organisations are covered and inspections are required to comply with United Nations protocol in ensuring the fair treatment of detainees.
Military
All branches of the armed services have a strict disciplinary code which ensures that all ranks are held accountable for their actions and at the same time all branches of the military are held accountable by the government who in turn are held accountable by members of the public. The military have their own legal system and any serious issues are dealt with by means of court martial.
Financial Accountability
As we have already explored, funding is a critical part of any protective/public service provision and costs the country a large amount of money each year. It is therefore important that the money allocated to each service is spent wisely and that budgets are not overstretched. This is also a form of accountability and there has to be a valid reason as to why the money has been spent.
Financial accountability consists of:
Effective use of budgets Maintaining public confidence Sharing good practice through publication of audit reports to monitor effectiveness of service delivery.
Examples of accountability within the police service
The performance of the police is measured in many ways, as is the performance of all public services. For example, the police are accountable for the speed at which they respond to incidents. They have a graded response policy and if they fail to meet these response times the individual officer will have to explain the reasons why.
Grade 1: Emergency Response - Attendance within 15 minutes of call receipt Grade 2: Priority Response - Attendance within 1 hour of call receipt Grade 3: Routine Response - Attendance within 4 hours Grade 4: Scheduled Response - Attendance or other resolution within 48 hours Grade 5: Telephone Resolution - First-time telephone resolution of a call
The police are responsible for recording all crimes which allows the organisation to monitor the effectiveness of the police service and it is important that these figures are reported accurately.
Employer Accountability
All employers have a duty of care to their employees and are accountable in a number of ways for the way in which they ensure the safety and wellbeing of their personnel. Examples include:
Fair recruitment practice Written particulars of employment Health and safety Working Time Regulations Fair treatment Your duty to grant maternity leave and pay/paternity leave and pay/parental leave and allow staff to return to the same job Abiding by express and implied contractual terms.
Employers can be held to account through working practices and procedures. They can also be held to account through legislation, such as the Equality Act 2010 and the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974.
Judicial Review
A judicial review is a type of court proceeding in which a judge reviews the lawfulness of a decision or action made by a public body. In other words, judicial reviews are a challenge to the way in which a decision has been made, rather than the rights and wrongs of the conclusion reached. Judicial reviews are binding once they have been made and public services will have to alter policy and procedure to reflect the outcome of the review.
Examples of the types of decision which may fall within the range of judicial review include:
Decisions of local authorities in the exercise of their duties to provide various welfare benefits and special education for children in need of such education Certain decisions of the immigration authorities and the Immigration and Asylum Chamber Decisions of regulatory bodies Decisions relating to prisoner's rights
Learning Aim D: The process and impact of government policies
Learning aim D helps us to understand the processes involved in the development of government policies and the impact of government policies on the lives of individuals and communities, and on the way that protective services are delivered.
Whatever stage of life we are at, government policies have an impact on the way in which we live our lives and for the most part, as individuals we have to adhere to those policies regardless of what we think - although later on in this learning aim we will explore ways in which we as citizens can influence the introduction and impact of government policies through protest and demonstration.
We are going to explore how government policies are developed and then look at the impact of those policies on the protective services and the communities they serve.
Development of Government Policy
We have already touched on how an Act of Parliament becomes law and the various stages it goes through before it is implemented. We will now look in more detail into the whole process. The best way to approach this is to split it up into stages:
Stage 1: Journey before parliament Stage 2: Journey through parliament Stage 3: Implementation.
Stage 1: Journey before parliament
Government policy can be generated by a number of factors, such as a need identified by the public or organisations, a reaction to an issue in the media or a new issue such as terrorism.
Initially policies begin life as ideas on how to change or manage a situation. These ideas can come from a variety of sources, such as:
the public the media the public services politicians subject experts.
The majority of government policy is introduced by politicians of the various political parties and each government sets out what it wants to do in a document called a manifesto. The manifestos are published before an election and allow voters to decide on who they want to elect as a government.
Once elected a government will write a King's Speech which is delivered by the monarch and sets out the government's agenda for that session of parliament.
Sometimes incidents happen which lead to a new law being implemented quickly as a result of media coverage of the incident. This media coverage can cause pressure on government ministers to act quickly which can lead to laws that are ineffective and not fit for purpose.
For example, in 1990 there were a series of dog attacks on children which caused fatalities and because of media pressure the Dangerous Dogs Act 1991 was introduced. It banned four types of dogs, including the American Pit Bull Terrier, from being owned. The argument was that the Act focused on the headline rather than on the problem. This argument is still going on today despite new dangerous dog legislation.
Another good example of how the media can influence policy is the campaign run by the News of The World (a newspaper that is no longer published). They ran a campaign to introduce a law called Sarah's Law.
Use the following links to find out more about Sarah's Law. Do you think it's right that the media can influence government policy?
Sarah's Law Roll Out 'A Good Step Forward' Q&A: 'Sarah's Law' explained
An example of how the public can influence government policy is by involvement in e-petitions and by being a member of a pressure group. The public can also write to their MP and express an opinion on a particular issue and as the MP is there to represent the views of the constituents, it is a good way to get your point across.
E- Petitions can be started by anyone, use the following web link to explore this further.
Petitions - UK Government and Parliament
There are many different types of pressure groups, some representing small organisations and single causes and some representing large groups of people such as trade unions. They are organisations that seek to influence elected officials through a process called lobbying, or take action to make a change on a specific issue.
Pressure groups can be categorised in four ways:
Interest/sectional groups e.g. Trades Union Congress (TUC), Confederation of Business Industry (CBI) Cause groups e.g. charities Insider groups: those who have links with the government Outsider groups: those who don't have links with the government and might be opposed to their policies.
Do some research on the internet and complete the table below explaining what each pressure group does, and give examples of those groups.
Interest Groups Cause Groups Insider Groups Outsider Groups
Types Of Bills
Before a piece of legislation becomes an Act of Parliament it is known as a Bill. There are different types depending on who is introducing the legislation.
Different types of Bills can be introduced by:
The government Individual MPs or Lords Private individuals or organisations.
There are four types of Bills that can be introduced into Parliament:
Public Bills Private Members Bills Private Bills Hybrid Bills.
Using the embedded web links below find out as much information you can about the different types of Bills and write your notes in the table:
Different types of Parliamentary Bill What is a bill? Public Bills Private Members Bill Private Bills Hybrid Bills
Once it has been decided that a Bill is going to be introduced to Parliament there are two specific stages that need to be completed. These stages are known as the Green Paper and the White Paper.
Stage 2: Journey through Parliament
Once the White Paper has been drafted the legislation is now ready to start its journey through Parliament where it goes through various stages. During these different stages the Bill is debated and voted on at a number of points both in the House of Commons and the House of Lords.
Point to Remember: A Bill can start its journey either in the House of Commons or the House of Lords
The following diagram clearly sets out the whole process.
Your task is to research each stage and complete the table with enough detail to allow you to understand the whole process.
For the purpose of this exercise the Bill is starting in the House of Commons First Reading Second Reading Committee Stage Report Stage Third Reading At this stage the Bill will go through the whole process again in the House of Lords Consideration of Amendments Royal Assent
Implementation
Once a Bill has received Royal Assent and it becomes an Act of Parliament, it might not immediately become law. There is normally a period of time allowed to let people know about the new law to ensure fairness.
For example when the law changed regarding using mobile phones while driving, six months was allowed to inform people of the new law. Similarly, the Police and Criminal Evidence Act became an Act of Parliament in 1984 but wasn't implemented until 1986 as all the police officers in the country had to be re-trained.
Impact of Government Policy on the Protective Services and Communities
Whenever a government policy is introduced or changed the effects on the public can be small or can be huge. For example as this booklet is being written the government has just announced that from April 2022 National Insurance contributions are being increased by 1.25% to reflect the increasing cost of health and social care. This policy is going to have a financial impact on us all, but could mean hardship for those on low incomes.
There are many different ways in which government policies can be impacted and sometimes the uniformed protective services have to change as a result of those policies, even though they may not want to.
Influence of Political Parties
Each time there is an election the different political parties will have different ideas as to how best run the country, and because of their political ideology they will usually want to implement their own policies to match that ideology.
For example the Conservative Party is known as the party of low taxes and they will try to ease the tax burden on society. Whereas the Labour Party are known to favour spending money on the public services and will borrow money to finance their aims. In practice this means that the public services will have to adapt depending on who is in government.
A political ideology is a set of ideas, beliefs, values, and opinions
Example
In 2010 a general election was held whereby the Labour party was defeated by the Conservative party who went on to form a coalition government with the Liberal Democrats. The Labour party whilst in power had spent large amounts of money and basically money was tight.
In order to balance the books the new government embarked on a policy of austerity (as we have already looked at) and cut public spending, resulting in a reduction in the police service of approximately 20,000 personnel.
Fast forward to 2021 the government are now increasing spending on the public services and the Conservative government have promised in their manifesto to increase the number of police officers by 20,000.
Click on this link to find out more: The austerity effect on UK police forces
How do you think this policy has impacted the police and the communities they serve?
Other examples of government policy that have impacted the public services
Civilianisation: this is a process of freeing up public service personnel by employing civilians to do non-operational work.
Over the years all protective/public services have changed and employees today are highly trained individuals who deal with complex issues. However not all incidents require the skills that the training provides. For example a police officer starting work in the 1980's would have dealt with all types of work they were trained for, but would also perform duties like radio communications or manning the front desk dealing with general public enquiries. These general roles are now performed by civilians who can perform these functions effectively without being trained as police officers. As such civilians are paid less, which means that more police officers can be deployed to deal with the incidents they are trained for.
Another example in relation to the police service is the introduction of PCSOs (Police Community Support Officers). This role was introduced in the Police Reform Act 2002 to address issues around disorder, low level crime, high visibility patrols, and public reassurance. This allows police officers to deal with incidents that require specialist training, e.g. firearms incidents.
Another example of how civilianisation has impacted the protective services is within the UK armed services. In the last decade The Ministry of Defence stated the following:
"The Department remains committed to a process of civilianisation. Increasingly, it makes no sense to employ expensively trained and highly professional military personnel in jobs which civilians could do equally well. Civilians are generally cheaper than their military counterparts and as they often remain longer in post, can provide greater continuity. For these reasons, it is our long-standing policy to civilianise posts and release valuable military resources to the front line whenever it makes operational and economic sense to do so."
Human Rights and Equality Legislation
Human Rights Act 1998
The public services have a tremendous amount of power over our lives. They can take away our freedom, investigate our private lives, monitor our actions and use the information they find out against us if required. These powers must be carefully regulated to avoid abuses by the state and its public services against individual members of the public. In a democracy there must always be checks and balances on power to ensure that no one agency or service has power over the public that cannot be challenged. Generally speaking, the public services operate with the consent and cooperation of the public and are respected and respectful. However, even in a country like the UK with highly trained and knowledgeable officers, a breach of human rights can still occur. This is why laws and policies such as the Human Rights Act 1998 exist. The Act makes it clear that certain rights are given to all UK citizens and if these rights are broken by the public services then an individual has the right to take the service to court and challenge its actions.
In police pursuits the police officer has a legal duty under The Human Rights Act to protect life. Public authorities should also consider your right to life when making decisions that might put you in danger or that affect your life expectancy. This includes the right to life of the person who stole the car.
This legislation changed the pursuit policies of the police service to reflect the change in the law.
Equality Act 2010
This was a major piece of legislation which brought together other Acts of Parliament looking at employment law as well as other issues that deal with equality and diversity.
The public services place a great deal of emphasis on the importance of equal opportunities and this has impacted on procedures in a number of ways. Firstly, the services are bound to reflect the communities which they serve and so the presence of ethnic minority groups and women in the public services is encouraged. This enriches the service and makes it more representative of the people it serves. To this end many public services are actively recruiting women or individuals from ethnic minority backgrounds, although there is still some way to go on this. Equal opportunities policies and legislation can have an impact on uniform requirements, for example Muslim policewomen may wear a dark blue head covering under their police hats, and Sikh male police officers may wear a dark blue police turban with the badge of the force clearly displayed upon it. In the armed services ration packs with kosher and halal provisions are available for Jews and Muslims. Equal opportunities legislation such as the Equal Pay Act, the Sex Discrimination Act and the Race Relations Act have fundamentally changed the way the services interact with their officers and the public.
Specific Policies that Impact the Armed Services
Declaration of War
As you will appreciate, the start of war will have a large and immediate impact on the armed services. They will begin to be deployed almost immediately to a particular battle zone, along with their resources and equipment. They will be fighting for an aim or set of aims specified by the government. The armed services exist as servants of the government and can only go into military action when ordered to do so by the government. They cannot pick and choose where they serve or when they serve. The implications of this on the services are far reaching as there is the ever-present risk to the lives of those serving.
The main priority of any government is to provide the means to defend the country from internal threats and threats from abroad. Political decisions made by different governments to engage our armed forces in various operations can have a large impact on those forces. This applies to the personnel themselves, their families and the communities they live in.
In 2001 the then Prime Minister Tony Blair committed British forces to a war in Afghanistan, and then in 2003 to a war in Iraq. Today in 2021 the government led by Boris Johnson has withdrawn all British forces from the region. Both actions have had enormous implications on the armed services.
In the table below create two lists, one to explore the implications on the service personnel, their families and the community when going to war in 2001, and one when being withdrawn in 2021.
Going to War Coming Home
Use of Technology
The armed services have always been at the forefront in the use of technology. They have provided the impetus for the development of many areas of technology with war and conflict driving technological changes as each side seeks an advantage over the other. One example is the war against terrorism where advanced technology and surveillance equipment have been used by both military and civilian counterterrorist specialists to protect the public.
The armed services are using remote vehicles (drones) to carry out more and more operations whereby targets can be destroyed by an individual sitting at a computer thousands of miles away from the target.
Have a look at this video, what do you think? MQ-9 Reaper armed drones to be operated from the UK
Reserve Forces
Until the late 1990s military reserve forces were rarely used on active duty. In 2006 reserve forces numbered 36,000, with the largest proportion of these coming from the Territorial Army, plus around 52,000 regular reserves (former full-time army personnel who can be called up to serve). As the commitments of the armed services have grown over the last 10 years with operations in Afghanistan and Iraq, reserve forces have had to be used as an essential component of the UK fighting force. The National Audit Office report on reserve forces in 2006 notes that over 12,000 reservists have been deployed in Iraq since 2003 and they contribute approximately 12% of the fighting force. Reservist medical personnel have been even more important as they have staffed up to 50% of the field hospitals in the conflict. There are advantages and disadvantages of using reserve forces. Commanding officers have noted that reservists may be less physically fit to cope with the demands of conflict and often they had not received adequate training or had the chance to be deployed with a regular unit. On the plus side, they bring a wealth of experience from their civilian lives which can enhance the service greatly. The government is committed to maintaining reserve forces although they are considering policy changes on how they are trained and deployed to try to bring them in line with their regular counterparts.
Click on the link to learn more: Defence review: British army to be cut to 72,500 troops by 2025
Stress/Morale
One impact of government policy on the protective/public services is that often the human element is forgotten. Everyday, men and women in all uniformed protective services are making sacrifices above and beyond what is expected and it is arguable that as a society we owe them a debt of gratitude for their service. But is that always the case?
Lone Stories: Homeless military veteran on not receiving social or mental support Watch this clip. What are your thoughts? Can you think of other examples of how this type of work in protective services, including non-military ones, could have an impact on stress and morale?
Target Setting
Central government sets targets for all of the public services. Public services also set their own targets on a range of tasks such as:
999 response times ethnic minority recruitment female recruitment budget expenditure reductions in crime or fires patient survival rates.
This can lead to a tremendous amount of pressure on all levels of the public services as they work to meet the targets and avoid the possible consequences if they are not met.
Protective services personnel responses to government policy changes
The majority of uniformed protective services are not allowed to strike or withdraw labour in order to protest against government policy, in fact it is illegal and potentially they could go to prison if they went on strike.
Those services include the police, the armed services and the prison service.
However these services have organisations to represent their views and opinions and they can make their views known to government ministers, for example The Police Federation.
Some services such as the fire service do have the right to strike and have done so in the past. Nurses have an agreement with the government that they will only strike if it is not to the detriment of the patients that are in hospital.
Public Response to Government Policy
Governments don't always get it right and the public can respond in many ways. Governments might introduce policies that some people agree with and some don't. The issue of Brexit is a classic example where government policy divided a nation.
We have an individual right to protest as long as the protest is carried out within the law. There have been many cases where policies have changed when people have broken the law and laws have been introduced which have drastically changed society.
Examples of ways in which the public can protest in response to government policy include:
Civil disobedience Demonstrations Meetings that require police attendance Picketing Sit ins Petitions.
Complete the table below with examples of the different ways in which the public can protest against government policy.
Civil disobedience
Demonstrations
Meetings that require police attendance
Picketing
Sit ins
Petitions