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Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence Article Talk Language Watch Edit
"Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence" (sometimes shortened to ECREE),[1] also known as the Sagan standard, is an aphorism popularized by science communicator Carl Sagan. He used the phrase in his 1979 book Broca's Brain and the 1980 television program Cosmos. It has been described as fundamental to the scientific method and is regarded as encapsulating the basic principles of scientific skepticism.
Carl Sagan, seen here with a model of Viking lander, popularized the aphorism.
The concept is similar to Occam's razor in that both heuristics prefer simpler explanations of a phenomenon to more complicated ones. In application, there is some ambiguity regarding when evidence is deemed sufficiently "extraordinary". It is often invoked to challenge data and scientific findings, or to criticize pseudoscientific claims. Some critics have argued that the standard can suppress innovation and affirm confirmation biases.
Philosopher David Hume characterized the principle in his 1748 essay "Of Miracles". Similar statements were made by figures such as Thomas Jefferson in 1808, Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1814, and Théodore Flournoy in 1899. The formulation "Extraordinary claims require extraordinary proof" was used a year prior to Sagan, by scientific skeptic Marcello Truzzi.
Critics state that it is impossible to objectively define the term "extraordinary" and that measures of "extraordinary evidence" are completely reliant on subjective evaluation. Ambiguity in what constitutes "extraordinary" has led to misuse of the aphorism, and it is frequently invoked to discredit research dealing with scientific anomalies or any claim that falls outside the mainstream.[2][3]
Contents Application edit
An interesting debate has gone on within the [Federal Communications Commission] between those who think that all doctrines that smell of pseudoscience should be combated and those who believe that each issue should be judged on its own merits, but that the burden of proof should fall squarely on those who make the proposals. I find myself very much in the latter camp. I believe that the extraordinary should certainly be pursued. But extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.
— Carl Sagan in his 1979 book Broca's Brain[4]
The aphorism "Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence", according to psychologist Patrizio Tressoldi, "is at the heart of the scientific method, and a model for critical thinking, rational thought and skepticism everywhere".[5][6][7] It has also been described as a "fundamental principle of scientific skepticism".[8] The phrase is often used in the context of paranormal and other pseudoscientific claims.[9][10][11] It is also frequently invoked in scientific literature to challenge research proposals,[12] like a new species of Amazonian tapir,[8] biparental inheritance of mitochondrial DNA,[13] or a Holocene "mega-tsunami".[14]
The concept is related to Occam's razor as, according to such a heuristic, simpler explanations are preferred to more complicated ones. Only in situations where extraordinary evidence exists would an extraordinary claim be the simplest explanation.[9] It appears in hypothesis testing where the hypothesis that there is no evidence for the proposed phenomenon, what is known as the "null hypothesis", is preferred. The formal argument involves assigning a stronger Bayesian prior to the acceptance of the null hypothesis as opposed to its rejection.[15]
Origin and precursors edit Philosopher David Hume may have been the first to fully describe the principle.
In his 1748 essay "Of Miracles", philosopher David Hume wrote that if "the fact ... partakes of the extraordinary and the marvellous ... the evidence ... received a diminution, greater or less, in proportion as the fact is more or less unusual".[16] Deming concluded that this was the first complete elucidation of the principle. Unlike Sagan, Hume defined the nature of "extraordinary": he wrote that it was a large magnitude of evidence.[16][17]
Others had also put forward very similar ideas. Quote Investigator cites similar statements from Benjamin Bayly (in 1708), Arthur Ashley Sykes (1740), Beilby Porteus (1800), Elihu Palmer (1804), and William Craig Brownlee (1824).[18] The French scholar Pierre-Simon Laplace, in essays (1810 and 1814) on the stability of the Solar System, wrote that "the weight of evidence for an extraordinary claim must be proportioned to its strangeness".[7][18]Thomas Jefferson in an 1808 letter expresses contemporary skepticism of meteorites thus: "A thousand phenomena present themselves daily which we cannot explain, but where facts are suggested, bearing no analogy with the laws of nature as yet known to us, their verity needs proofs proportioned to their difficulty."[19][20]
Scientific skeptic Marcello Truzzi used the formulation "Extraordinary claims require extraordinary proof" in an article published by Parapsychology Review in 1975,[18] as well as in a Zetetic Scholar article in 1978.[21] Two 1978 articles quoted physicist Philip Abelson—then the editor of the journal Science—using the same phrasing as Truzzi.[22][23]
Sagan popularized the aphorism in his 1979 book Broca's Brain,[4][24] and in his 1980 television show Cosmos in reference to claims about extraterrestrials visiting Earth.[25] Sagan had earlier used in a 1977 interview with The Washington Post.[18]
Analysis and criticism edit
Science communicator Carl Sagan did not describe any concrete or quantitative parameters as to what constitutes "extraordinary evidence", which raises the issue of whether the standard can be applied objectively.[7][24][26] Academic David Deming notes that it would be "impossible to base all rational thought and scientific methodology on an aphorism whose meaning is entirely subjective". He instead argues that "extraordinary evidence" should be regarded as a sufficient amount of evidence rather than evidence deemed of extraordinary quality.[27] Tressoldi noted that the threshold of evidence is typically decided through consensus. This problem is less apparent in clinical medicine and psychology where statistical results can establish the strength of evidence.[7]
Deming also noted that the standard can "suppress innovation and maintain orthodoxy".[27] Others, like Etzel Cardeña, have noted that many scientific discoveries that spurred paradigm shifts were initially deemed "extraordinary" and likely would not have been so widely accepted if extraordinary evidence were required.[28][29] Uniform rejection of extraordinary claims could affirm confirmation biases in subfields.[29] Additionally, there are concerns that, when inconsistently applied, the standard exacerbates racial and gender biases.[30] Psychologist Richard Shiffrin has argued that the standard should not be used to bar research from publication but to ascertain what is the best explanation for a phenomenon.[31] Conversely, mathematical psychologist Eric-Jan Wagenmakers stated that extraordinary claims are often false and their publication "pollutes the literature".[32] To qualify the publication of such claims, psychologist Suyog Chandramouli has suggested the inclusion of peer reviewers' opinions on their plausibility or an attached curation of post-publication peer evaluations.[29]
Cognitive scientist and AI researcher Ben Goertzel believes that the phrase is utilized as a "rhetorical meme" without critical thought. Philosopher Theodore Schick argued that "extraordinary claims do not require extraordinary evidence" if they provide the most adequate explanation.[11] Moreover, theists and Christian apologists like William Lane Craig have argued that it is unfair to apply the standard to religious miracles as other improbable claims are often accepted based on limited testimonial evidence, such as an individual claiming that they won the lottery.[33][34]
See also edit Epistemology Hitchens's razor Logical positivism Razor Theory of justification References edit Citations edit Kaufman (2012), p. 124. Tressoldi, Patrizio E. (June 10, 2011). "Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence: The Case of Non-Local Perception, a Classical and Bayesian Review of Evidences". Frontiers in Psychology. 2: 117. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00117. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 3114207. PMID 21713069. Deming, David (December 1, 2016). "Do Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence?". Philosophia. 44 (4): 1319–1331. doi:10.1007/s11406-016-9779-7. ISSN 1574-9274. PMC 6099700. PMID 30158736. Sagan (1979), p. 62. Kiely et al. (2019), p. 1475. Lineweaver (2022) Tressoldi, p. 1. Voss et al. (2014), p. 893. Smith (2011) Tressoldi, pp. 1–3. Evidence for Psi (2015), p. 292. McMahon (2020), p. 117. Salas et al. (2020) Pinter et al. (2008), pp. 37–38. Matthews (2010), p. 6. Deming (2016), p. 1328. Pigliucci (2013), p. 500. Quote Investigator (2021) Berkes (2008) "Letter to Daniel Salmon". Truzzi (1978), p. 11. U.S. News & World Report (1978), pp. 41–42. Rao (1978), pp. 41–42. Deming (2016), p. 1320. Sagan (1980), 1:24 min. The Library of Congress. Deming (2016), pp. 1319–1320. Cardeña (2018), p. 673. Shiffrin et al. (2021), p. 266. Shiffrin et al. (2021), p. 272. Shiffrin et al. (2021), p. 265. Shiffrin et al. (2021), pp. 265–266. Larmer (2015), p. 125. Craig (2008) [1994], p. 273. Works cited edit Books edit Craig, William Lane (2008) [1994]. Reasonable Faith: Christian Truth and Apologetics. Crossway. ISBN 9781433501159. Goertzel, Ben; Goertzel, Joe (2015). "Skeptical Responses to Psi Research". In Broderick D.; Goertzel B. (eds.). Evidence for Psi: Thirteen Empirical Research Reports. McFarland. pp. 291–301. ISBN 9780786478286. OCLC 896344862. Kaufman, Marc (2012). First Contact: Scientific Breakthroughs in the Hunt for Life Beyond Earth (Reprint ed.). Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781439109014. Larmer, Robert A. (2013). The Legitimacy of Miracle. Lexington Books. ISBN 9780739184219. Matthews, Paul (2010). Sample Size Calculations: Practical Methods for Engineers and Scientists. Mathews Malnar and Bailey. ISBN 9780615324616. Archived from the original on September 2, 2023. Retrieved March 19, 2023. McMahon, Sean (2020). "Do Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence?". In Smith K. C.; Mariscal C. (eds.). Social and Conceptual Issues in Astrobiology. Oxford University Press. pp. 117–129. ISBN 9780190915650. Archived from the original on October 28, 2023. Retrieved October 22, 2023. Sagan, Carl (1979). Broca's Brain: The Romance of Science. Hodder and Stoughton. ISBN 9780394501697. Smith, Jonathan C. (2011). Pseudoscience and Extraordinary Claims of the Paranormal: A Critical Thinker's Toolkit. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444358940. Archived from the original on October 28, 2023. Retrieved March 19, 2023. Journal articles edit Cardeña, Etzel (2018). "The Experimental Evidence for Parapsychological Phenomena: A Review" (PDF). American Psychologist. 73 (5). American Psychological Association: 663–677. doi:10.1037/amp0000236. PMID 29792448. S2CID 43960000. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 7, 2023. Retrieved September 24, 2023. Deming, David (2016). "Do Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence?". Philosophia. 44 (4): 1319–1331. doi:10.1007/s11406-016-9779-7. PMC 6099700. PMID 30158736. DeVorkin, David H. (2010). "Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence: C.H. Payne, H.N. Russell and Standards of Evidence in Early Quantitative Stellar Spectroscopy" (PDF). Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage. 13 (2): 139–144. Bibcode:2010JAHH...13..139D. doi:10.3724/sp.j.1440-2807.2010.02.09. S2CID 260957499. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 2, 2023. Retrieved September 5, 2023. Kiely, John; Pickering, Craig; Halperin, Israel (2019). "Comment on "Biological Background of Block Periodized Endurance Training: A Review"". Sports Medicine. 49 (9): 1475–1477. doi:10.1007/s40279-019-01114-9. PMID 31054093. S2CID 145022341. Archived from the original on October 14, 2023. Retrieved September 24, 2023. Lineweaver, Charles H. (2022). "The 'Oumuamua Controversy: Bayesian Priors and the Evolution of Technological Intelligence". Astrobiology. 22 (12): 1419–1428. Bibcode:2022AsBio..22.1419L. doi:10.1089/ast.2021.0185. PMID 36475967. S2CID 254433410. Archived from the original on October 28, 2023. Retrieved September 24, 2023. Pigliucci, Massimo; Boudry, Maarten (2013). "Prove it! The Burden of Proof Game in Science vs. Pseudoscience Disputes". Philosophia. 42 (2): 487–502. doi:10.1007/s11406-013-9500-z. S2CID 255165276. Archived from the original on October 21, 2023. Retrieved October 14, 2023. Pinter, Nicholas; Ishman, Scott E. (2008). "Impacts, Mega-tsunami, and Other Extraordinary Claims" (PDF). GSA Today. 18 (1). The Geological Society of America: 37–38. Bibcode:2008GSAT...18a..37P. doi:10.1130/gsat01801gw.1. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 2, 2022. Retrieved September 24, 2023. Rao, K.R. (1978). "Psi: Its Place in Nature". Journal of Parapsychology. 42 (4): 276–303. Archived from the original on September 4, 2023. Retrieved September 5, 2023. Salas, Antonio; Sebastian, Schönherr; Bandelt, Hans-Jürgen; Gómez-Carballa, Alberto; Weissensteiner, Hansi (2020). "Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence in Asserted mtDNA Biparental Inheritance". Genetics. 47. Forensic Science International. doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2020.102274. PMID 32330850. S2CID 216131636. Archived from the original on October 28, 2023. Retrieved September 24, 2023. Shiffrin, Richard M.; Matzke, Dora; Crystal, Jonathon D.; Wagenmakers, E.J.; Chandramouli, Suyog H.; Joachim, Vandekerckhove; Zorzi, Marco; Morey, Richard D.; Murphy, Mary C. (2021). "Extraordinary claims, extraordinary evidence? A discussion". Learning & Behavior. 49 (10): 265–275. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0223675. PMC 6812783. PMID 31648222. Tressoldi, Patrizio E. (2011). "Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence: The Case of Non-Local Perception, a Classical and Bayesian Review of Evidences". Frontiers in Psychology. 2 (117): 117. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00117. PMC 3114207. PMID 21713069. Truzzi, Marcello (1978). "On the Extraordinary: An Attempt at Clarification" (PDF). Zetetic Scholar. 1 (1). Archived (PDF) from the original on April 11, 2019. Retrieved March 11, 2018. Voss, Robert S.; Helgen, Kristofer M.; Jansa, Sharon A. (2014). "Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence: A Comment on Cozzuol et al". Journal of Mammalogy. 95 (4): 893–898. doi:10.1644/14-MAMM-A-054. S2CID 36684772. Other media edit Berkes, Anna (November 14, 2008). "Who Is the Liar Now?". Monticello. Thomas Jefferson Foundation. Archived from the original on October 30, 2016. "Carl Sagan: Researcher, Educator, Communicator, Advocate and Activist". The Library of Congress. Archived from the original on October 1, 2023. Retrieved September 18, 2023. "Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence – Quote Investigator". Quote Investigator. December 5, 2021. Archived from the original on October 28, 2023. Retrieved December 6, 2021. "Letter to Daniel Salmon on 15 February 1808 Discussing the Nature and Origin of Meteorites". The Library of Congress. Archived from the original on August 22, 2017. Sagan, Carl (December 14, 1980). "Encyclopaedia Galactica". Cosmos: A Personal Voyage. Episode 12. 01:24 minutes in. PBS. "A Stepchild of Science Starts to Win Friends". U.S. News & World Report. July 31, 1978. pp. 41–42. Archived from the original on October 15, 2017. External links edit Listen to this article (11 minutes)Duration: 10 minutes and 32 seconds.10:32 This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 16 March 2024, and does not reflect subsequent edits.(Audio help · More spoken articles) Last edited 15 days ago by Davide King
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The eastern chipmunk (Tamias striatus) is a chipmunk species found in eastern North America. It is a small species, reaching about 30 centimetres (12 in) in length, with a weight of 66 to 150 grams (2.3 to 5.3 oz). It has reddish-brown fur on its upper body and five dark brown stripes contrasting with light brown stripes along its back, ending in a dark tail. The eastern chipmunk can climb trees well, but constructs underground nests with extensive tunnel systems, often with several entrances. Its vocal repertoire consists of five sounds: the chip, the chuck, the trills, the whistle or squeal, and chatter. Trills have been measured to occur at the rate of 130 vibrations per minute. The eastern chipmunk lives a solitary life, except during courtship and mating and for the short period that young spend with their mothers after birth. It sometimes hibernates during the winter. This eastern chipmunk with stuffed cheeks was photographed in Prospect Park in Brooklyn, New York.
Photograph credit: Rhododendrites