The Mongol Empire (1206-1368) was founded by Genghis Khan (r. 1206-1227), first Great Khan or 'universal ruler' of the Mongol peoples. Genghis forged the empire by uniting nomadic tribes of the Asian steppe and creating a devastatingly effective army with fast, light, and highly coordinated cavalry. Eventually, the empire dominated Asia from the Black Sea to the Korean peninsula.
Expert horsemen and archers, the Mongols proved unstoppable in Central Asia and beyond, defeating armies in Iran, Russia, Eastern Europe, China, and many other places. The descendants of Genghis each ruled a part of the empire - the four khanates - the most powerful of which was the Mongol Yuan Dynasty in China (1271-1368), established by Kublai Khan (r. 1260-1279). Eventually, the Mongols became part of the sedentary societies they had so easily overwhelmed and many converted from traditional shamanism to Tibetan Buddhism or Islam. This was a general symptom of the Mongols not only losing part of their cultural identity but also, too, their famed military prowess, as the four khanates all succumbed to damaging dynastic disputes and the armies of their rivals. Although not famed for creating any lasting architectural wonders or political institutions, the Mongols did make the significant contribution to world culture of finally connecting the eastern and western worlds via expanded trade routes, diplomatic embassies and the movement of missionaries and travellers from Eurasia to the Far East.
Nomads of the Steppe
The Mongols were pastoral nomads of the Asian steppe who herded sheep, goats, horses, camels, and yaks. These tribes moved according to the seasons and lived in temporary camps of circular felt tents or yurts (gers). The climate of Mongolia is often harsh and, reflecting this, clothing was warm, durable, and practical. Felt from sheep's wool and animal furs were the most common material to make clothing which was remarkably similar for both men and women: heelless boots, baggy trousers, a long jacket-robe (deel) worn with a leather belt, and a conical hat with earflaps, while underclothes were made from cotton or silk.
The Mongol diet was mostly dairy-based with cheese, yoghurt, butter, and dried milk curds (kurut) being staples. A mildly alcoholic drink, kumis, was made from mare's milk which was often drunk to excess. The herds being too valuable as a sustainable source of milk, wool, and even dung for fuel, meat was typically acquired through hunting and wild fruits and vegetables were gathered through foraging. To stock up for winter and provide meat for special feasts such as at the irregular tribal gatherings, special hunts were organised. At these events a strategy known as the nerge was employed where riders encompassed a huge area of steppe and slowly drove the game - anything from marmots to wolves - into an ever-smaller area where they could be more easily killed by mounted archers. The techniques, organisation and discipline of the nerge would serve the Mongols well when they went to war. Most of these features of medieval daily life in the Mongol world are still continued today by steppe nomads across Asia.
Although nomadic life generally saw men do the hunting and women do the cooking, the division of labour was not always so clear, and often both sexes could perform the tasks of the other, including using a bow and riding. Women tended animals, set up and packed away camps, drove the tribe's wagons, looked after the children, prepared foodstuffs, and entertained guests. Women had rather more rights than in most other contemporary Asian cultures and could both own and inherit property. Several women even ruled as regents in the spells between the reigns of the Great Khans. Another area of Mongol life where women were actively involved was religion.
Religious Beliefs
The Mongols' religion had no sacred texts or particular ceremonies but was, rather, a mix of animism, ancestor worship, and shamanism. Instances of the elements of fire, earth, and water, impressive geographical sites like mountains and natural phenomena such as storms were considered to possess spirits. Shamans, who could be both men and women, were thought able to, in a state of trance, communicate with these spirits and travel in their world, helping to find lost souls and divine future events.
Other religions were present amongst the Mongols, notably Nestorian Christianity and, from the 14th century, Tibetan Buddhism (Lamaism) became popular, perhaps thanks to its shamanistic elements. Islam was also widely adopted in the western khanates. Above all, though, there was a widespread belief in the principal two deities: the Earth or Mother goddess, known as Etugen (Itugen), who represented fertility, and Tengri (Gok Monggke Tenggeri), the 'Blue Sky' or 'Eternal Heaven.' This latter deity was seen as a protector god and, crucially, he was thought by the tribal elites to have given the Mongol people a divine right to rule the entire world. Genghis Khan and his successors would put this idea into devastating practice by conquering almost the entire continent of Asia and creating the largest empire ever seen up to that time in history.