The Durand line agreement was signed in 12 November 1893, agreement between Amir Abdur Rahman Khan, of Afghanistan and Sir Henry Mortimer Durand, from British India. They made explicit the demarcation of the frontier between British India and Afghanistan. Imposed over Afghan objections, the Durand Line divided the Pashtun tribes living in the area and gave the British control over what would later become the Northwest Frontier Province (NWFP) now a day Khyber Pukhtunkhwa and Balochistan. From the very beginning, the line caused controversy by dividing communities and by creating a set of territories within the KP that remained under British sovereignty but outside of its colonial administration.
Here another important dynamic had also preset which was to play a significant role in shaping of political events in this region. It was the struggle for mastery between the expansionist Russia and British India. The important aspect of the struggle was that Afghanistan was to serve as chess pawns in the great game between these two imperialist European powers. Both Russia and British India were eager to influence the Afghan court to the exclusion of the other (Yousafzai and Yaqubi, 2017). In 19th century, when British government in sub-continent and the Russian Empire was approaching southwards into central Asia, the British were concerned about this. In sub-continent British have responded to the Russian threats and the Russian's want to take control of Afghanistan. In result, there is fought three Anglo Afghan war's in 1839-42, 1878-79 and 1919 respectively.
* SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS
The porous border has posed much threat to cross-border terrorism; a blame game of proxies; and the popular demand of nationalism at local level and how it forced the legislation at national level (FATA Merger). The last section critically analyze the existing challenges within community. For-instance the legal process and confusion of Triabal codes; the border restriction and how it is conflicting with Pashtun Wali norms; local security and flow of terrorist outfits; and the shift created … new border management rules which has a direct influence on local business.
:- Cross border terrorism
Pakistan's responsibility for not maintaining order in its own territories has no inheritable international significance when the worsening state of affairs in FATA is merely unprotected. The recent political compromise of administering the bordering region has left the realm unpatrolled and ungoverned. This compromise has expedited the emergence of violent and radical Muslim extremists therefore making instability and insecurity within the region and big issues for each the governments in national capital and national capital. The inhabitants of bordering areas are happy to examine the border issue stay unresolved intrinsically ungoverned territories are a supply of attraction for anti-state parts, additionally as foreign and native religious person radicals.
In 2005, Islamic Republic of Pakistan had 665 checkpoints on the 1519-mile Pak-Afghan border whereas the U.S.-led forces and also the Afghan National Army manned solely sixty nine combined posts. To boot, Islamic Republic of Pakistan had deployed seventy five thousand troops on the border compared to twenty five thousand on the other aspect.
In essence, Pakistani and Afghan armed and security forces lack the coaching, quality of apparatus, and capability to forestall and answer the on-going uprising inside Islamic Republic of Pakistan and on the bordering region. With the increasing U.S. pressure to prevent the cross border infiltration, Islamic Republic of Pakistan set to erect a fence and plant mines to secure the Afghan border and minimize infiltration from or into Afghanistan, Pakistan's Foreign Secretary, Riaz Muhammad Khan stated.
The Pak Army has been tasked to figure out the modalities for comparatively fencing and mining the Pakistan-Afghanistan border and these measures can supplement the measures that are already effective. In reaction to the present, Karzai responded, we have a tendency to act powerfully against the idea while mines won't forestall terrorist act crossing the border into Afghanistan, or militants who come back and kill our individuals. Laying mines or fencing the border can solely separate individuals and families from one another instead of serving to, it will cause individuals problem.
Humanitarian teams have jointly raised considerations relating to Pakistan's fencing and mining plans. To deny shelter in FATA, Islamic Republic of Pakistan believes that it's necessary to strengthen border security and control cross-border movement by Taliban and Al-Qaida operatives. By fighting the GWOT, the party has used this chance to expand its authority within the social group areas. There has been a severe backlash against the party from the individuals of FATA attributable to the social group leaders/elders having lost autonomy in these areas. The operations in FATA have junction rectifier to easing the pressure and considerations shown by the U.S. However, internally this has created additional hurt than sensible, building emotion for the Pakistan's military and security forces.
As a result, Islamic Republic of Pakistan is facing resistance against its own forces from inside its own FATA region, inflicting security considerations resulting in an insecure and unstable Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
Moreover, Afghanistan's vehement opposition to a 2006 Pakistani proposal to fence the border is in recognition of the actual fact that in all probability it is not inquisitive about subsiding the difficulty. The issue here is that such a soft border needs robust states on either aspect to forestall security issues or criminal activity.
Today, neither state is in an exceedingly position to secure the region in an exceedingly method that may permit this. Pakistan's claim to fence the border to prevent infiltration and cross-border attacks may be supplemented by analyzing the fencing on the Pak-India border on the LoC (Line of Control) in geographic region that is mentioned within the latter a part of the chapter. One country with an example of fortunate border fencing is that of us, who resorted to fencing the US-Mexico border in 2005 to prevent outlawed immigration and drug importation. Dave Stoddard, a former patrol supervisor who served for twenty seven years remarked, "Every place wherever a fence has been place up it's worked; there ought to be a fence from point of entry to metropolis."
The distinct challenges faced on the Pak-Afghan border are out and away on the far side the management of Pakistan's government. Islamic Republic of Pakistan lacks the capability to unravel the political, organic process, and security problems with this region that have given rise to political orientation, extremism, and terrorist act. The rise in violence and also the state of insecurity and instability within the east and south of Afghanistan are believed to originate in FATA and Baluchistan across the Durand Line.169 Statistics show that the quantity of deaths of coalition forces in 2008 compared to 2007 in these areas has increased. The insurgent attacks have increased by thirty third in 2008, which may be attributed to a weak Afghan government, the shortage of motivation and can of coalition forces to fight insurgents, and cross-border attacks from the safe havens within the bordering region between Islamic Republic of Pakistan and Afghanistan. Several analysts see the increase in violence in Japanese and Southern Afghanistan as paying back to the drone attacks in FATA.
The rank commander of ISAF (International Security help Force), General McKiernan believes that: Militant insurgents are firing nearly daily across the border from Islamic Republic of Pakistan at Afghan, yank and world organization military border posts. Those attacks are a main consider the sharp increase in combat violence in Afghanistan within the previous couple of months.173 In August 2007, President Musharraf acknowledged, there's little doubt Afghan militants are supported from Pakistani soil. The matter that you simply have in your region is as a result of support is provided from our aspect. The assumption that the U.S. won't strike into Islamic Republic of Pakistan has junction rectifier the insurgents to strengthen their attacks against U.S., NATO, and ANA forces. The benefit with that these spiritual, radical, and extremist fighters conduct their attacks reveals confidence and reflects the coordination between the Taliban commanders in Afghanistan and Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The U.S. and Afghanistan conjointly believe that this peace deals between the Government of Islamic Republic of Pakistan, TTP (Tehrik-e-Taliban-e-Pakistan), and Baitullah Mehsud are short solutions. These deals can offer a chance to the militant teams to lift their stature, facilitate them regroup, re-arm, and train. It's conjointly feared that once there's no insurgent activity in Islamic Republic of Pakistan, these teams are doubtless to divert their efforts against U.S. and world organization forces in Afghanistan.
:- Durand line role in promoting sentiments of nationalism
The dominant objective of Pakistan's policy-makers in supporting the Afghan War was to dam the revival of Afghan nationalism and persuade a friendly government in national capital to recognize the Durand Line as a world border therefore on stifles any betterment of a trans-border Pashtun nationalism. Within the 1stweek of Dec 1979, Afghan President Hafizullah Amin contacted Zia and offered 'Afghanistan's acceptance of the Durand Line because the international frontier reciprocally for a finish to Pakistan's support for the regime's enemies'. Amin, however, was dead by the invasive Soviet forces on 26th Dec 1979, when that relations between Islamic Republic of Pakistan and Afghanistan deteriorated.
Pashtun nationalism, however, was countered by Afghan Islamists' opposition to the thought of a Pakhtunistan, and supported Pakistan's commonality. The massive flow of Afghan refugees in Pakistan's North West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Baluchistan altered the political and socio-economic circumstances of the region, and should have dispelled once and for all the parable of Pakhtunistan.(Farr, 1990) When the autumn of Najibullah Almadzai's government and also the departure of the Soviets in 1992, the President of Afghanistan, Sibghatullah Mojadeddi, visited Islamic Republic of Pakistan and declared that 'the Durand Line is that the official border between Pakistan and Afghanistan however on the side there's no border between the two countries'. The Afghan Charge D'Affairs in Islamic Republic of Pakistan, Karamatullah Mussa Qazi, conjointly aforementioned that 'the Pakhtunistan issue would ne'er be raised with Islamic Republic of Pakistan as a result of nation and country compete a crucial role within the Afghan Jihad'.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS
Socioeconomic implications of Durand line issue on Pashtun community in particular, and Afghans and Pakistanis. For the sake of convince this chapter is divided into four parts. The first section analyzes of the cause and effect of economic activities across the border, and how the prevailing menace is affecting the local community markets. To reach an understanding to economic activities and Durand line cause, researcher has explore the following areas: direct and transit trade; flow of labor and Human Resources and its effects on local businesses; the border of Afghan refugees on national exchequer alone with associated smuggling; a health-cum-market vicious circle and why it is necessary for local markets.
The second section gives an understanding to social implication of Durand line confession. A descriptive analysis of Drug trade, Kalashnikov and Galemjum cultures has been made across the line. Moreover, the dialectic of Nationality crisis ( Triabal card – Kabali card in Afghanistan and Watan card in Pakistan) and subsequent Psychological evolution of identity crisis in society (Pakistan across the line) which direct and effect the local and the national policy formulation.
:- Direct and Transit Trade
Being a land-lock country Afghanistan is mainly dependent on Iran's Chabahar and Durand line for direct and transit trade. The trade from India to Afghanistan via Pakistan, or Pakistan trade with Central Asian States via Afghanistan requires both countries to render their intensions. The trade profile between both countries: 2013-14 export $ 1,873,257 and import was $ 359, 154; and 2014-15 export $ 1,961,429 and import was $ 322,614. These figures represent the legal trade between both neighbors and it possibility would reached its double figures if the illegal trade is included as well.
The export of Afghanistan includes the fruits, nuts, vegetables, Mutton, cotton, iron and steel to different countries. During the first decade of 21st century, the export of 204 fruits and nuts contributed 28 percent of total Afghanistan trade (export). By the end of 2013 cotton and mineral raw material contributed 8 percent of total Afghanistan exports. Similarly, 6 percent was contributed by vegetables, iron and steel in the same economic years.
The "Afghanistan and Pakistan Transit Trade Agreement (APTTA)" was reached in1965 to allow the free flow of goods crossing Pakistan soil. The APTTA was updated in 2010 with new conditionality, i.e. the trade between Wagah border and Torkham or Chaman would be free and facilitated by Pakistan government. This development increased the transit trade by $5 billion per year for both neighbors.
The main problem between Afghanistan and Pakistan is Islamabad – Delhi antagonism. Any specific change in Indo-Pakistan relation has direct implication on Afghan trade. Pakistan play the cards of security and other barriers to exert pressure on Indian goods (transit trade) to hamper the smooth flow of material to Afghanistan. The second factor in introducing hurdles to Indian transit trade is the strategy to discourage these products and to force Afghan's trader to opt for Pakistani goods instead. Such dynamics in Afghanistan – Pakistan trade need to be re-defined at priority bases.
:- Flow of labor and human resources
Durand line plays a vital role in flow of labor and human resources exchange between the two countries (Afghanistan and Pakistan). This dynamics of border is providing the communities inhabiting the areas to develop a local market structure thereby serving and utilizing the goods and services. The porous and ill-management nature border is main cause which is supporting the local market construction, and obviously the 1979 and 2001 Soviet and US respectively, adventurism further facilitated the porous nature of border thereby producing a huge bulk of cheap labor availability to local markets.
Since Durand line is mainly concern with trade especially the Torkham and Chaman, the common local businesses are mostly transport facilitation in nature. For instance, vehicles maintenance like tyres shops; store house (sarai-local Pashtun terminology); local loan based on interest community; the mechanics, repairer, and labor for loading un-loading purposes; and the local fruits, vegetables and meat markets officially. Non-officially, the market also consist the smuggled tyres, vehicle parts, some time even whole vehicle in parts – cars, trucks, vegetables, fruits, meats cattle smuggling) and huge number of electronics. An examples in such direction is "What is the strongest thing you've ever seen in Chaman?" asked him … A Camel carrying a truck on its back… They dissemble the vehicle and put it on two or three camels. They do the same with cars." (Herald, Haseeb Asif, Open for business: Chaman tyres as a smuggler's paradise – 2016). All these businesses and markets require huge number of self-shilled and cheap labor. It is usually provided by the local rural communities of seeking survival (a piece of land for house, social acceptance and access to work) and future planning of securing both sides nationalities.
The 2017 new rules for border management of Torkham was aimed at counting smuggling and hindering the illegal flow of human resources (labor). The documentation on Torkham border imposed certain conditions on export and import and implemented the customs act of 1969. The act required every clearing agent to provide a copy of CNIC and NIN authorities for every clearing.
The 1969 act was practically implemented in 2017, but it hasn't any optimistic outcomes so far. The main reason which hinder the positive results of policy is the open and free export and import Afghan's rules on border. If the accountability of border imposed on one side, the aim of countering smuggling and human illegal flow would be hampered. Similarly in Torkham and Chaman Afghan's government had not introduced any legal procedure to tackle the issue.
Moreover, to re-address the Durand line trade, business and related labor, Zahid Ullah Khan Shinwari, SCCI (Sarhad Chamber of Commerce and Industry) president-local business communities and national export, import regulation committee recommended that concrete measures based on joint jirga should be introduced in order to minimize the gap between local business community and government officials. His efforts reduced the 2018 initial tension at Torkham and Chaman in order to facilitate the clearance of loaded vehicle waiting on both sides of border. (Pak-Afghan trade issues to be resolved through joint jinga- Ali Hazrat Bacha – Dawn, February 02, 2018).
:- Health factor: a vicious circle?
The two wars in Afghanistan changed the socio-economic and demographic profile of Quetta and Peshawar, especially in health sector. The refugees menace put the foundation of Nasir Bagh hospital in Board Bazar Peshawar (Nasir Bagh refugee camp), Kuwait Hospital in Peshawar and Jihad Hospital in Jalozai. The Nasir-Bagh hospital had closed working while the Kuwait and Jihad Hospitals are still functioning.
Alone with refugees hospitals, the Hayatabad Rehman Medical Institute (RMI), and North West General Hospital (NWGH) are just five minutes away from Khyber Agency. Similarly, the Khyber Teaching Hospital (KTH) and Lady-reading Hospital (LRH) are public sectors institution which supports the Afghans visitors for health. Dabgari Garden Peshawar is the main hub of health sector for Afghans which cross Torkham (Durand line) for the purpose the Quetta is severing the Afghans on the same pattern in health sector.
Peshawar and Quetta provided advanced technology, skilled and qualified doctors, and vast variety of pharmaceutical products for almost all kind of regional diseases. Since, the Afghanistan hospitals lack the aforementioned facilities, majority of them whether once refugee or not visit Pakistan for the purpose. For-instance, the 2012 data from RMI and NWGH shows that 77,000 and 60,000 Afghan patients respectively visits these hospitals for treatments.
Such exchange for health purpose has healthy effects on economic engine of tribal areas as well. The transport community from Torkham, Chaman to Peshawar and Quetta respectively; the pharmacies, the restaurants and hotels; and other related goods market visits by these Afghanis forge an economic …social circle within health sector. This vicious circle creates within health sector a wide range of employment opportunities in rural areas of both Pakistan and Afghanistan (since, these Afghans usually comes from Balkh, Herat, Kabid, Mazar e-sharif and Kunduz to Torkham.
This overall process at one place create optimism, but the other side of picture shows policy mafia, local security forces blessings and inflation at private sectors. For-instance, the Express Tribune quoted that "changes for the guest houses are so high that we do not leave the hospital premises; similarly, the police income from these Afghans and the heavy laboratory tests, surgery and medicines fee are affecting the health vicious circle. Moreover, the legal process for obtaining visa for treatment takes very long; and the local official mafia in these offices compel Afghan's to opt India or Pakistan in future.