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Nutrient Content
Nutrient content claims 'low in sodium' or 'high in folate' must only be used with nutrients that have an established daily value and meet the criteria for the particular claim.
From: Encyclopedia of Food and Health, 2016
Related terms:
Nutrition Physiology
Carbohydrate
Vitamin D
Protein
Breast Milk
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Food Safety Management
D. McCrea, in Encyclopedia of Food Safety, 2014
Nutrient Content
A nutrient content claim is a nutrition claim that describes the level of a nutrient contained in a food, such as, 'source of calcium' and 'low in fat.' Reference levels at which a content claim can be used are specified in international and national legislations. For example, to make a claim of low fat, the table of conditions for nutrient content claims applies. In this context it means that not more than 3 g fat per 100 g solids can be present. For each nutrient content claim the conditions are strictly prescribed.
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Rice: Types and Composition
P.S. Panesar, S. Kaur, in Encyclopedia of Food and Health, 2016
Colored Rice
The nutrient content of rice suggests that the nutritional value of rice varies based on a number of factors as shown in Figure 1. The nutritional content also depends on the color of the grain. Scientists have found that the color of rice is basically due to the compounds it contains as in purple rice, hydrophilic antioxidants represent a greater portion than the lipophilic antioxidants. Furthermore, studies showed that most of the useful substances are found in the inner part of the purple rice bran. Similarly, black rice and red rice contain pigments that reduce atherosclerosis development and cholesterol levels, which are however absent in milled white rice.

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Figure 1. Different factors influencing nutritional composition of rice.
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Applications of Trichoderma in Plant Growth Promotion
Alison Stewart, Robert Hill, in Biotechnology and Biology of Trichoderma, 2014
Mineral Solubilization and Enhanced Nutrient Uptake
Soil nutrient content is an important factor that influences the proliferation and bioactivity of plant growth promoting fungi. Growth promotion has been observed to be greatest in soils where nutrient and/or mineral content is low. In several instances it was determined that the limiting factor in crop yield was nitrogen. In a field trial on corn, T. harzianum T22-treated plants were noticeably greener and larger than control plants. The number of ears increased from 1447 to 1995 dozen ears/ha and yields increased from 4940 to 7184 kg/ha (Harman and Bjorkman, 2005). The mechanism of this plant growth promotion was deemed to be enhanced uptake of minerals and ammonia nitrogen by the roots. Research has shown that corn roots colonized by T. harzianum T22 require 40% less nitrogen fertilizer than corn with roots lacking the fungus. Since there is likely to be restrictions placed on the use of nitrogen fertilizers in many countries, this attribute shown by many Trichoderma species, may provide farmers with an alternative management practice to maintain high agricultural productivity.
It has also been reported that T22 can solubilize a range of plant nutrients such as rock phosphate, Fe3+, Cu2+, Mn4+ and Zn0 that may be unavailable to plants in certain soils (Altomare et al., 1999; Harman et al., 2004b). Similarly, T. harzianum 1295-27 was shown to solubilize phosphate and micronutrients that could then be made available for plant growth (Altomare et al., 1999; Whipps, 2001). The Trichoderma was shown to be able to reduce insoluble Mn4+ to soluble Mn2+, Cu2+ to Cu1+, and Fe3+ to Fe2+. Benitez et al. (2004), reported that Trichoderma can produce organic acids such as citric, gluconic or fumaric acids that lower soil pH and thereby permit the solubilization of phosphates.
When Trichoderma GT2-1-colonized barley grains were incorporated in brown loam soil, 4-week-old wheat seedlings had enhanced uptake of inorganic minerals in Trichoderma-treated pots compared with the control (e.g. P 17.13 μg/kg compared with 11.76, K 70.53 μg/g compared with 46.47) (Shivanna et al., 1994, 1995, 1996). Trichoderma harzianum 25-92 (conidia 108 g−1 mixed into the soil before planting) significantly increased fresh and dry weights of chickpea by 50–63% and 24–42%, respectively, and also increased root length by 25%. The number of root tips increased by 30–95% and there was a significant increase in chlorophyll content of leaves (33.25 spad units compared with 26.6 in the control). The authors postulated that the underlying mechanism was related to increased uptake of phosphorus and other minerals (Jyotsna et al., 2008).
These examples show that Trichoderma species have wide ranging abilities to solubilize plant nutrients such as phosphorus and micronutrients including copper, iron, manganese and zinc, thereby making them available to plants for enhanced growth capability.
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Gluten-free foods and beverages from millets
John R.N. Taylor, M. Naushad Emmambux, in Gluten-Free Cereal Products and Beverages, 2008
Nutrients and anti-nutrients
The proximate nutrient content of foxtail millet is similar to that of other millets (Table 6.3). In vitro protein digestibility of raw and cooked foxtail millet was reported as 77 and 92%, respectively (Ravindran, 1992), a high cooked value. The reported starch content of foxtail millet is about 50–55% (Kumar and Parameswaran, 1998), which is relatively low for cereals. The in vitro digestibility of native and popped starch after 3 hours digestion was found to be low, about 47 and 52%, respectively (Muralikrishna et al., 1986). However, Ushakumari et al. (2004) reported about 77% starch in decorticated grain and a high starch digestibility of about 96%. This suggests that there is a high proportion of bran in the whole grain, which interferes with starch digestibility. The major fatty acids in decorticated foxtail millet are palmitic acid (C16:0) (46%), stearic (11.5%) (C18:0) and oleic acid (35%) (C18:1) (Ushakumari et al., 2004), which represents an unusually high proportion of saturated fatty acids for cereal grains. The total dietary fiber is around 9.4% (Table 6.3), but Ushakumari et al. (2004) reported values of about 8.8% for raw and 11.8% when popped.
Foxtail millet has polyphenols, phytic acid, and oxalate as anti-nutritional factors. These can be decreased by processes such as dehulling (debranning), soaking, and cooking. For example, dehulling increased in vitro protein digestibility by 30%, by removing some of the anti-nutritional factors (Pawar and Machewad, 2006). The total phenolic and carotenoid contents of foxtail millet were reported as 47 and 80 μg/100 g, respectively (Choi et al., 2007). A methanolic extract of these compounds was found to have good antioxidant activity. However, in comparison to kodo millet, foxtail millet seems to have a lower free radical quenching potential (Hedge and Chandra, 2005).
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Manure Management☆
Amy L. Shober, Rory O. Maguire, in Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, 2018
Manure Characteristics by Species
The physical properties and nutrient content of animal manures are reasonably well known and tables summarizing manure characteristics have been developed for use by farmers and their advisors (ASAE, 2005; Tables 2 and 3). Values such as these, however, are only guidelines, as it is recognized that manures can vary widely in composition both between and within species. Therefore, regular testing of manures for properties that influence their agricultural value and potential environmental impacts is often advised. Results from manure testing have consistently shown that differences in manure nutrient content between animal species are apparent (Tables 2 and 3). For example, both N and P concentrations in manure increase in the order cattle < swine < sheep and goats < poultry. Broiler litter contains two to six times the concentration of manure nutrients as other livestock manures, which leads to particular problems in areas where the poultry industry has intensified, compared with areas of other intensified livestock industries. For example, of the 357 counties in the continental United States with excess manure P in 2002 (Fig. 3), roughly 60% were dominated by poultry (broiler or egg) production (Maguire et al., 2007). However, widespread use of phytase in poultry diets, in combination with reductions in mineral P in feeds, has reduced overall P excretion by poultry over the last two decades. Phytase is an enzyme that helps to break down phytate P (the main form of P in grains) allowing better absorption of grain P by poultry (and other monogastric animals such as swine) and reduces the need for addition of calcium phosphate supplements. It is estimated that adoption of modified diets in all areas of the United States could reduce the percentage of counties in the United States with surplus manure P from 11% to 8% (Maguire et al., 2007; Fig. 4).
Table 2. Manure production and nutrient content as excreted per animal for beef, dairy, and swine and per 100 birds for poultry
Animal type (class)Standard weight per animal (kg)Manure produced (Mg year− 1)Nutrient content (kg Mg− 1)Total NPKBeef (calf)2958.035.911.143.86Beef (finishing cattle)44610.75.560.733.80Dairy (dry cow)75313.96.050.793.89Dairy (heifer)4408.035.450.91n.d.Dairy (lactating cow)62424.86.621.151.51Poultry (broiler)1.183.7310.83.276.33Poultry (layer)1.363.2118.25.456.59Swine (boar)2001.397.372.554.63Swine (gestating sow)2001.836.401.804.40Swine (grow to finish)69.91.708.391.363.57Swine (lactating sow)1924.387.082.084.42Swine (nursery pigs)12.50.4878.541.423.33
Adapted from American Society of Agricultural Engineers (2005). Manure Production and Characteristics. ASAE D384.2. St. Joseph, MN: ASAE. n.d. indicates no data available.
Table 3. Manure production and nutrient content as removed per animal for beef, dairy, and swine and per 100 birds for poultry
Animal (manure type)Manure produced (Mg year− 1)Nutrient content (kg Mg− 1)Total Kjeldahl NNH3-NPKBeef (earthen lot)2.7411.81.005.0012.5Dairy (scraped earthen lot)12.87.00n.d.2.506.70Dairy (liquid slurry)24.53.001.401.304.00Dairy (scraped concrete lot)14.65.30n.d.1.304.00Poultry (broiler litter)0.0737.37.506.0013.7Poultry (laying hens)0.1118.58.8012.113.1Swine (finisher; slurry, dry feeders)1.644.703.401.802.40Swine (finisher; slurry, wet-dry feeders)1.287.005.002.102.40
Adapted from American Society of Agricultural Engineers (2005). Manure Production and Characteristics. ASAE D384.2. St. Joseph, MN: ASAE. n.d. indicates no data available.

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Fig. 4. Potential manure P surplus or deficit in 2002 for each county of the continental United States relative to removal of P in the harvested portion of crops if poultry diet modification was adopted nationwide; harvested acreage was averaged across the census years 1987, 1992, 1997, and 2002 to prevent distortion in acreage due to floods, droughts, or other disasters.
Reproduced with permission from Maguire R. O., Crouse A. D. and Hodges S. C. (2007). Diet modification to reduce phosphorus surpluses: A mass balance approach, Journal of Environmental Quality 36, 1235–1240.
The variability in manure composition is due to a number of factors, including animal species and age, diet, digestibility of feed materials, environmental conditions in animal housing facilities, and the means by which manures are handled and stored prior to use or disposal. For example, the amount of feed concentrates and other feed additives (e.g., enzymes) in a diet (and thus nutrients in manure) can vary between developed and developing countries; manure storage and drying can reduce N content through ammonia (NH3) volatilization; and manure collected from open-housing areas or stored in lagoons can be diluted by rainfall.
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Food Composition Data
S.P. Murphy, in Encyclopedia of Human Nutrition (Third Edition), 2013
Poor Analytic Procedures
Accurate chemical analysis of the nutrient content of foods is a challenging process, and may yield inaccurate results for a variety of reasons. For some nutrients (and other food components of interest), accurate procedures may not be available. For example, the usual procedures for analyzing the folate content of foods are known to underestimate the actual levels, and thus estimates of folate intakes are likely to be low. Both the extraction procedures and the enzyme digestion treatments may be less than optimal for food folate, and although more recent procedures solve some of these problems, folate values on most food composition tables are probably underestimated. Dietary fiber in foods provides another example of possibly incorrect methods. Many older food composition tables contain a variable named fiber, but the values are for crude fiber. Crude fiber is measured using procedures that destroy some of the physiologically important fibers, and thus it is an underestimate of the true dietary fiber content. More recent methods measure either total dietary fiber (defined as all fibers that are not digested in the human gut, including lignin) or nonstarch polysaccharides (which excludes lignin).
Inaccurate analyses may also occur when access to the best laboratory equipment is not available, either because the costs are too high or because the technical expertise on its usage is not available. For many of the antioxidant compounds such as carotenoids and tocopherols, quantification by mass spectrometry (MS) yields the most sensitive detection limits, although analysis using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is adequate in most cases. However, because the equipment, maintenance, and reagents are often too expensive, laboratories (particularly in developing countries) may use older methods, such as spectrophotometry combined with open column chromatography. Nutrient values derived using such methods are less accurate than those resulting from HPLC and MS methods.
Users of food composition tables should ask when and how analytic values were obtained. Likewise, compilers of these tables should clearly document the analytic procedures used to obtain all values and ensure that such information is readily available to users.
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Nutrients and Aging
Lawrence J. Whalley, in Handbook of Models for Human Aging, 2006
ENERGY ADJUSTMENT
The method used to express the nutrient content of diet merits some consideration (Willett et al., 1997). The general principle is that the expression of content should make nutritional sense and should take account of influences on bioavailability and loss of nutrients in food preparation. Energy adjustment is perhaps the most frequently used method. The greater the consumption of all foods, so consumption of specific nutrients is also likely to be greater. Bigger, more active subjects will eat more than the sedentary. Improvements in comparisons between subjects and between studies can be achieved through energy adjustment. This is particularly useful when individuals seek to minimize their intake at the level of macronutrients (as with some obese individuals). Differences between under-reporters and those who make valid returns are much reduced after energy adjustment. Energy adjustment is unhelpful when there is no relationship between energy consumption and the relevant nutrient.
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Biofortification
C. Hotz, in Encyclopedia of Human Nutrition (Third Edition), 2013
Genetic Engineering
When sufficient natural genetic variation in nutrient content does not exist in a particular food crop, transgenic approaches offer an alternative method in achieving biofortification. This is done by introducing new genes derived from different organisms that are novel to the target plant species, or that turn on or upregulate existing genes in the target tissue. Although much of this research is in the early stages of development, proof-of-concept has been established for biofortification with several nutrients in a variety of food crops (Table 2).
Table 2. Examples of biofortified food crops being developed using genetic engineering
NutrientFood cropCalciumCarrot, lettuceIronMaize, riceFolateRice, tomatoProvitamin A (β-carotene)Cassava, maize, rice, potato, tomatoVitamin EMaize, oil seed cropsAmino acidsCassava, maize, rice, sorghum, wheatFatty acidsOil seed crops
The biofortified staple food crop produced by transgenic methods that is most advanced in development is rice that contains β-carotene. Although rice plants contain the genes required to produce β-carotene, their expression is turned off in the rice grain endosperm. The insertion of two genes, a plant phytoene synthase (PSY) and bacterial carotene desaturase (CRTI) were sufficient to turn on the pathway. Referred to as Golden Rice, the initial proof-of-concept milled rice grain contained only a small amount of β-carotene (<1.6 µg g−1 dry weight). However, a second generation Golden Rice using PSY derived from maize instead of daffodil has a higher β-carotene content of up to >30 µg g−1 dry weight before storage, which is of greater nutritional significance.
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Nutrition of Laboratory Mice
Merel Ritskes-Hoitinga, in The Laboratory Mouse, 2004
Storage conditions
In order to ensure that the nutrient contents of the natural ingredient diets remain within the specifications until the recommended expiry date, diets must be stored in a cool and dry place and free from pests. Keeping the diets at – 20°C instead of 5°C, will prolong shelf life. In order to avoid cross-contamination, the storage area must be dedicated to non-medicated diets. Exact storage conditions must be provided by the manufacturer (BARQA, 1992). The purified AIN93 diet is best stored at −20°C. During a 3 months' storage period at − 20°C, the peroxide value (measure of oxydation) did not increase in contrast to storage at +5°C (unpublished observations). When storing at − 20°C, addition of antioxidants is not considered necessary. As these may interfere with the purpose of studies, e.g. atherosclerosis induction, it is advisable to store diets at − 20°C and omit the addition of an antioxidant whenever possible. Where highly unsaturated oils like fish oil are to be used, the addition of this fish oil needs careful consideration as they are easily oxidised, thereby reducing vitamin E levels. When adding fish oil to diets, the best procedure is to keep the fish oil stored under liquid nitrogen at − 80°C, and then mix the fish oil freshly through the (purified) diet each day, just before feeding (Ritskes-Hoitinga et al., 1998).
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Nutrition of the Laboratory Mouse
Merel Ritskes-Hoitinga, ... Lars Friis Mikkelsen, in The Laboratory Mouse (Second Edition), 2012
Storage conditions
In order to ensure that the nutrient contents of the natural-ingredient diets remain within the specifications until the recommended expiry date, diets should be stored in a cool (about 18–21 °C) and dry place (less than 65% relative humidity) and free from pests. In order to avoid cross-contamination, the storage area must be dedicated to non-medicated diets. A full discussion on diet storage is given in Tobin et al. [1].
Storage of purified diets, particularly high-fat ones, poses particular problems. Fullerton et al. [49] reported that vitamin losses and rancidity could be substantially decreased by reducing storage temperature from ambient to 4 °C, and in the case of AIN-76A (which would be typical of many purified diets), expiration could be extended to 6 months. Shelf life can be further prolonged by keeping the diets in a freezer at −20 °C instead of 4 °C. Storage of AIN-93 at −20 °C for 3 months did not lead to fat oxidation as measured by the peroxide value, in contrast to storage at +5 °C (unpublished observations). When storing diet at −20 °C, addition of antioxidants is not considered necessary. This is important where antioxidants may interfere with the purpose of studies, e.g. atherosclerosis induction, and are best avoided. Working with highly unsaturated oils like fish oil needs particular care since they are very easily oxidized, altering the nature of the fatty acids and possibly decreasing vitamin E levels. When adding fish oil to diets, the best procedure is to keep the oil stored at −80 °C, and then mix the oil freshly through the purified diet each day, just before feeding [50].
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Immune Checkpoint Therapy plus Cytoreductive Surgery
By Victoria Socha -
October 21, 2019

Immune Checkpoint Therapy plus Cytoreductive Surgery in mRCC
Patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC) gain clinical benefit from cytoreductive surgery, including cytoreductive nephrectomy and metastasectomy. However, there are few data available on cytoreductive surgery in the setting of immune checkpoint therapy. Jianjun Gao, MD, PhD, and colleagues conducted a presurgery/biopsy trial designed to evaluate biological and clinical activity of nivolumab (nivo) or nivo plus bevacizumab (bev) or nivo plus ipilimumab (ipi) in patients with mRCC. Results of the trial were reported in an oral presentation at ASCO 2019.
The open-label, randomized trial enrolled patients with mRCC without prior immune checkpoint therapy and anti-vascular endothelial growth factor therapy. The participants were randomized 2:3:2 to receive nivo (3three rounds of 3 mg/kg once every 2 weeks), nivo + bev (three rounds of 10 mg/kg once every 2 weeks), or novo + ipi (two rounds of 1 mg/kg once every 3 weeks), followed by cytoreductive surgery or biopsy, and then nivo maintenance therapy up to 2 years. Clinical response was measured at ≥12 weeks using Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors criteria. Correlative studies were conducted on pre- and post-treatment blood and tumors.
To date, of the 105 patients enrolled, 104 have evaluable results. Of the total cohort, best overall response, defined as complete response plus partial response, including surgery effect was 55% in the nivo group, 44% in the nivo + bev group, and43% in the nivo + ipi group.
Median progression-free survival was 14.5 months in the nivo group, 7.6 months in the nivo + bev group, and 7.5 months in the nivo + ipi group. At 1 year, overall survival was 86% in the nivo group, 73% in the nivo + bev group, and 83% in the nivo + ipi group. Grade 3 or higher therapy-related toxicities were 38% in the nivo group, 42% in the nivo + bev group (including 18% hypertension), and 47% in the nivo + ipi group.
Among the patients with cytoreductive surgery, best overall response including the effect of surgery was 86% in the nivo group, 88% in the nivo + bev group, and 69% in the nivo + IPI group. Median progression-free survival in the three groups was 17.3 months, 7.6 months, and 8.9 months, respectively. At 1 year, overall survival was 100% in the nivo group, 94% in the nivo + bev group, and 92% in the nivo + ipi group. Median overall survival has not yet been reached with a median follow-up of 24.6 months.
Results of immune and gene profiling analyses revealed: (1) a correlation between tumor infiltrating CD8 T cells and clinical responses to nivo or nivo + bev, but not to nivo + ipi; (2) a correlation between tumor interferon pathway gene expression and responses; and (3) no correlation between programmed death-ligand 1 status, tumor mutation or mutation burden, or neoantigens.
In summary, the researchers said, "Immune checkpoint therapy plus cytoreductive surgery is safe and beneficial to patients with mRCC, and therefore warrants testing, along with a few correlative biomarkers, in a larger phase 3 trial."
Clinical trial information: NCT 02210117
Source: Gao J, Karam JA, Tannir NM, et al. A pilot randomized study evaluating nivolumab (nivo) or nivo + bevacizumab (bev) or nivo + ipilimumab (ipi) in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC) eligible for cytoreductive nephrectomy, metastasectomy or post-treatment biopsy (Bx). Abstract of a presentation at the American Society of Clinical Oncology 2019 Annual Meeting, June
The study wants 15 patients receiving Opdivo before surgery and another 15 taking Opdivo and Yervoy.
Opdivo will be given 42, 28 and 14 days before surgery. Yervoy will be administered just once, on day 42.
The study also allows for patients to continue receiving regular immunotherapy treatments after surgery for up to one year or until disease progression.
"We know from other cancers that giving immunotherapy prior to surgery has been shown to lead to regression of the tumor and infiltration of the immune system attacking the cancer," Forde said. "We know from other cancers that it can be effective."
Both drugs are known as immune checkpoint inhibitors.
The two drugs target different surface proteins, but they work in similar ways, negating their effectiveness that restricts a patient's immune system from stopping the tumors.